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200FL
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Developed in Consultation
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Table of Contents
Florida Benchmarks
Chapter 1
The Nature of Science
Lesson 1
Practice of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
SC.912.N.1.1, SC.912.N.1.7
Lesson 2
Planning an Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . 12
SC.912.N.1.1
Lesson 3
Scientific Tools and Measurements . . . 16
SC.912.N.1.1
Lesson 4
Organizing and Analyzing Data. . . . . . . 20
SC.912.N.1.1, SC.912.N.1.6
Lesson 5
The Characteristics of Scientific
Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
SC.912.N.2.1, SC.912.N.2.5
Lesson 6
Scientific Theories and Laws . . . . . . . . 29
SC.912.N.3.1, SC.912.N.3.4
Lesson 7
Scientific Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
SC.912.N.3.5
Lesson 8
Science and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
SC.912.N.4.1, SC.912.N.4.2
Chapter 1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 2
Space Science
Lesson 9
Origin and Patterns of the Universe . . . 45
SC.912.E.5.1, SC.912.E.5.2
Lesson 10
The Evolution of Stars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
SC.912.E.5.3
Lesson 11
The Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SC.912.E.5.4
Lesson 12
Formation of Planetary Systems. . . . . . 56
SC.912.E.5.5
Lesson 13
The Earth, Moon, Sun System . . . . . . . 60
SC.912.E.5.6
Lesson 14
Tools of Astronomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
SC.912.E.5.8
Lesson 15
The Exploration of Space . . . . . . . . . . . 68
SC.912.E.5.7, SC.912.E.5.9
Chapter 2 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter 3
Earth Science
Lesson 16
Lesson 17
Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
SC.912.E.6.1
Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Surface. . . 78
SC.912.E.6.2, SC.912.E.6.3,
SC.912.E.6.4
Lesson 18
Biogeochemical Cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
SC.912.E.7.1, SC.912.E.7.3,
SC.912.L.17.10
Lesson 19
Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
SC.912.E.7.2
Lesson 20
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
SC.912.E.7.4, SC.912.E.7.7,
SC.912.E.7.9
Lesson 21
Weather Patterns and Prediction . . . . . 98
SC.912.E.7.5
Lesson 22
People and the Environment
of Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
SC.912.E.7.6, SC.912.E.7.8
Chapter 3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
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Florida Benchmarks
Chapter 4
Matter
Lesson 23
States and Properties of Matter . . . . . 110
SC.912.P.8.1, SC.912.P.8.2,
SC.912.P.10.4
Lesson 24
Atomic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
SC.912.P.8.3, SC.912.P.8.4
Lesson 25
The Periodic Table of Elements . . . . . 119
SC.912.P.8.5
Lesson 26
Bonding Forces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
SC.912.P.8.6
Lesson 27
Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
SC.912.P.8.7
Lesson 28
Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
SC.912.P.8.8, SC.912.P.8.10
Lesson 29
Quantitative Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
SC.912.P.8.9
Lesson 30
Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
SC.912.P.8.11
Lesson 31
Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
SC.912.P.8.12, SC.912.P.8.13
Chapter 4 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Chapter 5
Energy
Lesson 32
Energy Transformations
and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
SC.912.P.10.1, SC.912.P.10.2
Lesson 33
Work and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
SC.912.P.10.3
Lesson 34
Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
SC.912.P.10.4, SC.912.P.10.5,
SC.912.P.10.7
Lesson 35
Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
SC.912.P.10.6
Lesson 36
Atomic Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
SC.912.P.10.9, SC.912.P.10.11,
SC.912.P.10.12
Lesson 37
Fundamental Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
SC.912.P.10.10
Lesson 38
Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
SC.912.P.10.14, SC.912.P.10.15
Lesson 39
Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
SC.912.P.10.16
Lesson 40
The Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . 186
SC.912.P.10.18, SC.912.P.12.7
Lesson 41
Behavior of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
SC.912.P.10.20, SC.912.P.10.21
Chapter 5 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Chapter 6
Motion
Lesson 42
Analyzing Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
SC.912.P.12.1, SC.912.P.12.2
Lesson 43
Gravity and Newton’s Laws
of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
SC.912.P.12.2, SC.912.P.12.3,
SC.912.P.12.4
Lesson 44
Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
SC.912.P.12.5, SC.912.P.12.6
Lesson 45
The Behavior of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
SC.912.P.12.10
Chapter 6 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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17
Plate Tectonics and
Earth’s Surface
SC.912.E.6.2, SC.912.E.6.3, SC.912.E.6.4
Getting the Idea
Key Words
continental drift
hypothesis
theory of plate
tectonics
plate boundary
divergent boundary
sea-floor spreading
mid-ocean ridge
convergent
boundary
subduction
transform boundary
earthquake
volcano
hot spot
weathering
mechanical
weathering
chemical
weathering
erosion
deposition
Earth is shaped by interactions of its lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Recall that the lithosphere is the solid part of Earth, which is made up of
the crust and the top of the mantle. The asthenosphere is the part of the
mantle upon which the lithosphere floats.
Continental Drift
Earth’s surface is made up of large landmasses called continents. The
continental drift hypothesis states that the continents were once
joined in a single large landmass that broke apart, and they then drifted
to their current locations. German scientist Alfred Wegener proposed
this hypothesis in 1912. Wegener called the single large landmass from
which all of today’s continents formed Pangaea. The maps below show
four stages in the formation of today’s continents from the breakup of
Pangaea. Scientists have discovered much evidence to support the idea
of continental drift.
Laurasia
Pangaea
Panthalassa
Go
nd
wa
na
lan
245 million years ago
Earth’s land was concentrated in a single
large landmass called Pangaea that
extended from pole to pole. Pangaea was
surrounded by a sea called Panthalassa.
th
Nor erica
Am
180 million years ago
Pangaea broke apart, forming two
large landmasses known as Laurasia
and Gondwanaland.
rth a
No eric
Am
Eurasia
d
ope
Eur
Asia
India
Africa
Africa
h a
ut ric
So me
A
India
South
America
ia
tral
Aus
lia
stra
Au
Antarctica
65 million years ago
Laurasia and Gondwanaland broke apart,
forming most of the major continents.
However, the continents have not yet
drifted to their current locations.
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Present
North America and Eurasia have split
apart and other continents have drifted
to new locations. The continents are now
in their present-day positions.
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Lesson 17: Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Surface
Plate Tectonics
Recall that Earth’s lithosphere is broken into large sections. The idea
that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates that are carried on the
asthenosphere is the theory of plate tectonics. About seven major
plates and several smaller ones make up Earth’s surface, as the map
shows. Many smaller plates are not shown.
Gorda Plate
Eurasian
Plate
Cocos Plate
Philippine Plate
Caroline Plate
Pacific Plate
Indian-Australian Fiji Plate
Plate
North
American
Plate
Eurasian Arabian
Plate
Plate
Caribbean Plate
South
Nazca American
Plate
Plate
Antarctic Plate
IndianAustralian
African
Plate
Plate
Scotia Plate
Plate Movements Change Earth’s Surface
Tectonic plate movements change more than just the locations of the
continents. They also change Earth’s surface at places where plates
interact. A place where two tectonic plates meet is called a plate
boundary. Earth’s surface changes in different ways at different kinds
of boundaries. The three main types of plate boundaries are divergent
boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries.
Divergent Boundaries
A place where two tectonic plates move apart is called a divergent
boundary. New crust forms at divergent boundaries. The type of feature
formed at a divergent boundary depends on the types of crustal plates
involved. Where two oceanic plates move apart, molten rock from
the mantle flows up to fill the space between the plates. This magma
hardens to form new rock and ocean crust. Because the process forms
new sea floor, it is called sea-floor spreading. Sea-floor spreading
widens existing ocean basins and sometimes forms new ocean basins.
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Did You Know
Many fossils of
early humans have
been found in the
East African Rift
Valley.
Long, continuous chains of volcanic mountains, called mid-ocean
ridges, can form along divergent boundaries between oceanic plates.
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mid-ocean ridge located at the center of the
Atlantic Ocean. Sea-floor spreading at this ridge is causing the Atlantic
Ocean to become wider.
Mid-ocean
ridge
Plate
Plate
Magma
Two oceanic plates moving away from each other
Some divergent boundaries involve continental plates. When such plates
move apart, magma can flow up into the space between them to form
a rift valley. If the continental plates continue to spread apart, a new
ocean basin may form between them. The East African Rift Valley is a
recent divergent boundary in northeast Africa.
Convergent Boundaries
A place where tectonic plates move toward each other is called a
convergent boundary. Mountain ranges and volcanoes form at such
boundaries. As with divergent boundaries, the type of Earth feature
formed depends on the types of plates involved. Mountain ranges form
where two plates carrying continental crust converge, or come together.
The Himalayan Mountains, for example, formed where the IndianAustralian Plate meets the Eurasian Plate.
Where two oceanic plates converge, one plate is typically pushed
under the other in a process called subduction. Crust is destroyed
in subduction zones at convergent boundaries. A deep ocean trench
forms where the two oceanic plates meet. The plate that is subducted
is pushed deep into the mantle and begins to melt. The hot, less
dense magma then rises toward the surface and erupts as a volcano.
Volcanoes at convergent boundaries may rise above sea level to
form volcanic islands such as the Aleutian Islands in the northern
Pacific Ocean.
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Lesson 17: Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Surface
Volcanic mountains
Trench
Subducting
ocean plate
Ocean
plate
Trench
Volcanic mountains
Subducting
ocean plate
Continental
plate
Two oceanic plates pushing into
one another
An oceanic plate and a continental plate
pushing into one another
When an oceanic and a continental plate converge, the oceanic plate is
subducted beneath the continental plate. This interaction forms a chain
of volcanoes along the edge of the continental plate, as magma rises
from the melting oceanic plate. The Andes Mountains formed at the
convergent boundary of the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate.
Transform Boundaries
A transform boundary is a place where two plates grind past one
another in a mainly horizontal direction. Crust is not formed or destroyed
at transform boundaries. The crust at these boundaries is faulted, that
is, cracked and deformed.
A fault is a crack in Earth’s crust. Transform boundaries are typified by
long faults. When tectonic plates push together or pull apart near a fault,
large sections of Earth can be pushed upward or sink downward relative
to one another. The tallest blocks of crust pushed upward form a type
of mountain called a fault-block mountain. The Sierra Nevada is a faultblock mountain range.
Most transform faults are located in the oceans, where they offset
sections of the mid-ocean ridges. The San Andreas Fault is a wellknown transform boundary that separates southwestern California from
the North American Plate. Earthquakes are common along transform
boundaries, as they are along all boundaries.
An earthquake is the shaking of Earth’s surface due to a quick release
of energy that was stored as pressure in rocks. As shown below, when
the rocks cannot tolerate the pressure, they break and move, releasing
their energy in the form of seismic waves. The movement that causes
earthquakes tends to occur at faults.
Plate boundary
Pressure builds
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Plates slip and release energy
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Features Resulting from Plate Interactions
Most volcanic activity occurs at convergent and divergent boundaries.
A volcano is an opening in Earth’s surface through which magma is
released. Magma in the mantle can move upward and accumulate in
underground pools. These pools can overfill and exert enough pressure
on the rock above them to break through onto Earth’s surface.
Volcano
Surface
Magma
Often, magma erupts gently onto Earth’s surface by simply oozing out
of cracks in Earth’s surface. However, under great pressure, a violent
volcanic eruption can throw boulders, rocks, and ash great distances.
In either type of eruption, lava, magma that reaches Earth’s surface, can
move over the land. burning everything in its path. When the lava cools
and hardens, it forms new igneous rock.
Some volcanoes form over hot spots rather than at plate boundaries.
A hot spot is an unusually hot, basically stationary area in the mantle
through which magma rises. Volcanoes sometimes form when tectonic
plates move over hot spots. For example, the Hawaiian Islands formed
when the Pacific Plate moved over a hot spot. The hot spot is currently
beneath Kilauea, an active volcano on the big island of Hawaii.
Weathering Changes Earth’s Surface
Not all changes to Earth’s surface are caused by interactions of tectonic
plates. For example, rocks at Earth’s surface are constantly broken
apart. The process that breaks rocks into smaller pieces is called
weathering. Weathering forms both sediment and soil.
Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces. Agents of
mechanical weathering include moving water, wind, gravity, glacial
movement, freezing and thawing, and organisms.
Wind and water can cause rocks to break apart through contact
with other particles. For example, fast-moving water can bang rocks
together, causing them to break apart. Wind can blow sand and small
rock particles against other rocks. Gravity causes rocks to break apart
during landslides. Glaciers can pick up and carry pieces of rock. This
material becomes embedded in the glacial ice and wears away the rock
surfaces over which the glacier passes.
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Lesson 17: Plate Tectonics and Earth’s Surface
Mechanical weathering often results from temperature changes. For
example, water within a crack in a rock can freeze when temperatures
drop. The freezing water expands and exerts pressure against the
rocks on either side of the crack. The crack may widen slightly. When
temperatures rise, the ice melts and releases the pressure. Over time,
the repeated freezing and thawing cycles cause the rock to weaken and
break apart. The mechanical weathering of rock caused by repeated
freezing and thawing of water is called ice wedging.
Chemical weathering breaks rocks apart by changing their chemical
makeup. Common agents of chemical weathering include water, acids,
and oxidation. Water can dissolve and wash away some minerals in
rocks. Acids produced by fungi or in acid rain can dissolve minerals and
change their composition. Oxygen in the air can react chemically with
substances (such as iron) in rocks.
Erosion and Deposition
Rock that has been broken down can be eroded. Erosion is the
movement of rock and soil by wind, water, ice, or gravity. Erosion can
be fast or slow. For example, land is eroded quickly when hurricane
waves carry away large amounts of sand from a beach. Gravity can
quickly carry away large amounts of rock and soil during a landslide.
Canyons are formed by the moving water of rivers. The formation of a
canyon takes a long time as the water first weathers and then erodes
the rock over which the river travels. The amount of material carried
away depends in part on how fast the river flows. The tall limestone
bluffs along the banks of the Suwannee River formed in this way.
Two features that often result from chemical weathering and erosion
are caves and sinkholes. For example, the caves in the Florida Caverns
State Park in Marianna formed as acidic water flowing underground
dissolved and carried away minerals contained in limestone deposits. As
more and more minerals were removed, the caves were left behind.
A sinkhole is a large hole in the ground that forms when the walls of a
cavern are weathered away so that they can no longer support the land
above them. The roof of a cave then collapses into the void below it.
The cave turns into a sinkhole, or sink, at the surface.
Weathering and erosion are destructive forces that break down Earth’s
surface. These destructive forces are balanced by a constructive
force called deposition. Deposition is the process in which sediments
transported by erosion are dropped in new locations. Like erosion,
agents of deposition include wind, water, ice, and gravity.
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Sand dunes are formed by deposition. Dunes form when wind that
is carrying sand slows and drops the sand. River deltas, triangular
deposits of sediment at river mouths, are also formed by deposition. The
delta forms because river water slows when it enters the ocean.
DISCUSSION QUESTION
Look at the shapes of the eastern coast of South America and the western
coast of Africa on the map showing the present-day locations of the
continents on page 78. How do the shapes of these regions support the
continental drift hypothesis?
LESSON REVIEW
1.
2.
3.
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Which process is responsible for breaking apart rocks on Earth’s surface?
A.
weathering
B.
erosion
C.
deposition
D.
folding
Which of these is an example of chemical weathering?
A.
Trees wedge their roots into crevices, pushing the rock apart.
B.
Acid rainwater seeps into the ground and dissolves limestone.
C.
Gravity pulls rocks to the bottom of a mountain.
D.
Rock pieces carried by river water scrape the rocks in the
riverbed.
At what type of plate boundary does sea-floor spreading occur?
A.
convergent oceanic-oceanic boundaries
B.
convergent oceanic-continental boundaries
C.
divergent oceanic-oceanic boundaries
D.
transform boundaries
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