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Restricted Technical Report DC^DI T" ^ ^ J W~ • ^ CO ^> RP/1981-1983/2/7.4/04 REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE Development of national and regional infrastructures in the marine sciences Marine Sciences by Youssef Halim Serial N o . F M R / S C / O C E / 8 4 / 1 4 7 j[| ==• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Paris, 1984 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE MARINE SCIENCES by Youssef Halim with cooperation of Rui Monteiro Report prepared for the Government of the People's Republic of Mozambique by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) U N E S C O Technical Report RP/1981-1983/2/7.4/04 FMR/SC/OCE/84/147(Halim) 1 June 1984 © Unesco 1984 Printed in France (i) Preface The mission described in the present report was carried out from 6 to 29 May 1983 at the request of the Government of the People's Republic of Mozambique, and was funded by Unesco under its Regular Programme for 1981-1983. The terms of reference of the mission were, "to collect information and data on the coastal zone of Mozambique, and on the effect of the damming of the River Zambezi on the marine environment, with special reference to living resources ; to survey the existing infrastructure and manpower for marine research, including the development of the Marine Biology Centre at Inhaca Island." (ii) The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the publishers concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory. (iü) CONTENTS Preface THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING page (i) 1 II THE HYDROGRAPHIC RiSGIME AND THE COASTAL ZONE 6 III IMPACT OF THt; CABORA BAS SA DAM 42 The Zambezi River 42 Flow Regime 43 The Marine Fisheries 44 Conclusions 48 IV MAN-POWER AND INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE 54 V IN1IACA MARINE RESEARCH STATION 59 VI RECOMMENDATIONS 69 Annex 1: Marine Species of Commercial Value in Mozambique 73 Annex 2: Four Year Curriculum for a B.Sc. in Biology 76 Annex 3: Proposed Curriculum for Marine Sciences. IVth Year, B. Biology 77 Annex 4: Proposed Complementary Courses for the Junior Fishery Officers (1979 Graduates) as a PreRequisite for a Licenciatura. 78 ITINERARY 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY 82 I THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING The People's Republic of Mozambique is located on the south-eastern coast of Africa between latitudes 10°27' and 26052' south. It has an Indian Ocean coastline of more than 2,700 kilometres. It is bounded on the north by Tanzania, on the west by Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Transvaal Province of South Africa and on the south by Swaziland and the Natal Province of South Africa. To the east, it is separated from the island of Madagascar by the Mozambique Channel. Mozambique occupies southern Africa's largest coastal plain. Half of its total area lies between 0 and 300 m above sea level. This coastal plain is widest in the south, where it covers nearly the entire width of the territory, but northwards it becomes narrower. Central and northern Mozambique is occupied by an interior plateau, ranging from 150 to 600 metres. This plateau rises still higher towards the western boundaries with Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, reaching elevations of 1,750 metres along the Zambia-Malawi border near lake Malawi to 2,207 metres in the north-west in the Tete district. The climate is dominated by two regimes. South of the Zambezi River it is characterized by the passage of the depressions of the south-east TradeWind Zone, and north of the Zambezi by the southern end of the reversing Monsoon system (Tilney, 1979). In the northern part, the winds follow the alternating monsoon system with north-east winds blowing during the southern summer and south-west winds during the southern winter. In central Mozambique easterly winds prevail. The climate is subhumid. Maputo receives 759 millimetres of rain in an average year; Inhambane, 891; Beira 253; Antonio Enes, 1,062; and Tete, 581. There is a distinct rainy season, during the southern summer, from October to March. The dry season lasts from April into September and sometimes longer. Records of precipitation show that Mozambique, north of the Zambezi is a region of greater moisture and lesser drought. The south suffers from drought and low rainfall, except along the littoral and against the inner plateau slopes. POPULATION The 1960 census reported a population of 6.6 million. By 1980 the population had grown to 8.2 million and, in 1980, it was estimated to be 10.5 to 12 million. The population distribution is characterized by a concentration along the coast, except along the Zambezi and the upper Limpopo-Save. Approximately 90 per cent of the population live in rural areas, though the population of Maputo district has increased from 800,000 in 1970 to more than a million in 1980. THE COAST Mozambique has a coastline of 2,730 km. The coastline is marked by several features. In the extreme south lies the Bay of Maputo (Formerly Bay of Lourenço Marques) also known as Delagoa Bay. It is protected from the Indian Ocean by a sandy spit prolonged by the island of Inhaca. The Bay is at the confluence of four rivers, the Maputo, the Umbeluzi and two others, the Tembri and the Matóla, joining to form an estuary. Northward from the Bay of Maputo to the Zambezi river, the coast is sandy and swampy, with mangroves, sandy spits and offshore bars. The Rio Limpopo outfalls to the south and the Rio Save to the north of this sector of the coast. Between the latter and the Zambezi Delta extends the shallow Sofala Bay, a major prawn-fishing ground. North of the Zambezi Delta, sandy stretches are interrupted by rocky cliffs and headlands, as well as islands of coral formation. The tidal range along the Mozambican coast is one of the highest in east Africa. Sofala Bay has tidal amplitudes of more than 6 m. The total amplitude decreases to the north and to the south. - 2 - FIG I: The East African Region 'I .J SEYCHELLES \ ' ^ ^ t - 3 - MAURITIUS FIG 2: Wind distribution in the Indian Ocean 120* £ 40' FEBRUARY, 20' NORTl EAST MONSOON, 0*\- 20> K ig» so* *0' 40' 90* 120' YINDS _AUGUSTj$i?\ 120° z - 4 - CABO J)£T.S/U3C PEMSÀ MOZAMBIQUE CHAUNEL INHAM8ANE r-XAI Delagoa bay FIG 3: The People's Republic of Mozambique II THE HYDROGRAPHIC REGIME AND THE COASTAL ZONE The hydrographie regime in the Mozambique Channel forms part of the general hydrographie regime in the South-west Indian Ocean. Three largescale circulation systems have been delineated in the Indian Ocean (Wyrtki, 1973): 1. The seasonally changing monsoon gyre 2. The southern hemisphere subtropical anticyclonic gyre 3. The Antarctic waters with the circumpolar current. The anticyclonic subtropical gyre consists of the South Equatorial Current, the Agulhas Current system and the eastward flow running north of the subtropical convergence situated near 40°S (Fig. 4 to 6). On the northern edge of the South Equatorial Current, a tongue of low-salinity water, originating off Sumatra, stretches west near 10°S, extending all the way to Africa. This boundary corresponds to a clearly marked sub-surface front in the chemical characteristics, which separates the waters of low oxygen content and high nutrients in the Northern Indian Ocean from those of high oxygen content and low nutrients in the subtropical gyre. Circulation in the Mozambique Channel forms part of the South Equatorial Current and the Agulhas Current system, but local factors are superimposed on the large-scale current system. In the Mozambique Channel, a strong and permanent anticyclonic geostrophic eddy is developed. Water flows to the South along the continental slope of Africa, causing a northward flow along Madagascar, and a weaker and irregular inshore northward counter-current. The center of this eddy is filled with warm high-salinity subtropical surface water. The southward flow of this eddy causes an uplifting of the subsurface water from about 500m depth to near the surface, along the edge of the continental slope. This is reflected by the pattern of the isolines for temperature, salinity, oxygen and phosphate (Fig. 12 to 18). An inventory of océanographie cruises in the Mozambique Channel is given in Table I, after da Silva et al. (1981). WATER MASSES The temperature-salinity and the temperature-oxygen relationships show a characteristic stratification of water masses which appears to be a permanent feature of the whole Mozambique Channel (Fig. 7 to 11). Surface Water The surface layer in the Mozambique Channel consists of the lowsalinity tropical surface water transported westward across the Indian Ocean by the South Equatorial Current. On reaching the African continent, about one-third of the waters of this current are diverted south at the level of Cabo Delgado (Fig. 5 and 6). The southward-flowing Mozambique Current gradually rises in salinity and decreases in temperature. The mid-Channel salinity ranges from 34.4 to 35.1 10~3 at the northern end and from 35.2 - 6 - TABLE I : Inventory of Océanographie Cruises in the Mozambique Channel COUNTRY MONTH ^a. OF REFERENCES YEAR SHIP 1913 MOWS GER Jan-Fab 20 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1.930 DANA tl DAN Jan-Jun 6 LUTJEHARMS (1972) L93S DISCOVERY II GOR Apr 7 CLOWES and DEACON (1935) CLOWES (1950) LBTJEHARMS (1972) 19S2 WILLIAM SCORESBY GBR Aug 7 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1950-52 GALATHEA DAN 5 LUTJESARMS (1972) 1952 ALISAOS FRA NOV-Dac 33 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1.957 COMMANDANT ROBERT GXRAUD FRA OCt-NOV 65 MENACTE (1961) MENAC2E (1963) LUTJEHARMS (1972) I960 COMMANDANT R03ERT GIRADO FRA Sap 51 ANON (1960) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1961 AFRICANA II RSA Jus 13 ORRE:: (1963) VISSER and VAN NIE5ŒRK (1965) .•WSTERT (1966) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1962 COMMANDANT ROBERT GIRAU3 FRA Sep-Oc« 51 ANON (1963) CREPON (1964) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1963 ATLANTIS II USA Oct-NOv 19 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1964 ALMIRANTE LACERDA ?OR Apr-May 44 ANON (1965) LUTJEHARMS (1968) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1964 ALMIRANTE LACERDA POR Sap 44 ANON (1967) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1964 ANTON SRONN OSA Sap-Nov 34 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1964 VLADIMIR VOROBIEV URS Oct-Mov IS EROFEEVA and RJONSNITSJOf (1970) 1965 ALMIRANTE LACERDA POR Apr-May 27 ANON (1973) 1965 ATLANTIS II USA May-jun 22 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1965 VLADIMIR VOROBIEV URS May-Jul 33 ¡CHIMITSA (1968) SROFEEVA (1970) EROFEEVA and RJONSNITSKY (1970) LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1965-66 VLADIMIR VOROBIEV URS Oac-Jan 1966 ALMIRANTE LACERDA POR Jul 28 ANON (1973) ' 1966 VAUBAN MAO Oct 14 CCNGUY and PITON (1969) 1966 VAUBAN MAD Mov-oao 11 DONGUY and PITON (1969) 1967 VAUBAN MAO Jan-Feb 14 DONGUY and PITON (1969) 1967 VAUBAN MAO Jun-Jul 10 DOMGUY and PITON (1969) 1967 VAUBAN MAO Jul-Aug 16 DONGUY and PITON (1969) 1967 VAUBAN MAO Sep 7 DONGUY ind PITON (1969) PITON and MACNIER (1975) 1968 VAUBAN MAO Mar 14 MACNIER and PITCN (1974) PITCH and MAGNIER (1975) STATIONS - 7 - ERCFKEVA (1970) Table I: (cont'd) MONTH NO. OF STATIONS HAD Hay 17 LUTJEHARMS (1972). HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1973V ARIEL URS Jul-Aug 29 LUTJEHARMS (1972) 1970 VAUBAN HAD Nov 39 HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1972) HAGNIER and PITON (1973) 1970 VAUBAN HAD Dec 24 HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1972) HAGNIER and PITON (1973) HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1973) 1971 VAUBAN HAD Mar 34 HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1972, 1973) HAGNIER and PITON (1974) PITON and HAGNIER (1975) 1971 VAUBAN HAD Hay 23 CITEAU, PITON and HAGNIER (1973) HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1973) PITON and HAGNIER (1975) 1971 VAUBAN HAD NOT-Oac 18 CITEAU, PITON and HAGNIER 11973) HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1973) HAGNIER and PITON (1974) PITON and HAGNIER (1975) 1972 VAUBAN HAD Jan-Feb 21 HAGNIER, PITON and CITEAU (1973) HAGNIER and PITON (1974) PITON and HAGNIER (1975) 1973 VAUBAN HAD Hay 23 PITON and HAGNIER (1975) 1973 VAUBAN HAD Mar 34 1974 VAUBAN HAD Jun-Jul 34 1975 VAUBAN HAD Mar 25 1976-77 ABT.TT» ORS May-Aug 110 1977 OR.FRIDTJOF NANSEN NOR Sep 41 SXTRE and PACÍA E SILVA (1979) 1977 OR .FRIDTJOF NANSEN NOR Nov 59 SCIRE and PAULA S SILVA (1979) 1978 DR.FRIDTJOF NANSEN NOR Jan-Mar 65 SCIRE and PAULA E SILVA (1979) 1978 DR.FRIDTJOF NANSEN NOR Apr-May 66 S/ETRE and PAULA E SILVA (1979) 1978 HYSLITEL ORS Sep-Oct 66 ANON (1978) ISAENXO et al. (1980) 1978-79 N U B L A Ï RESaETNYAK ORS Dec-Jan 56 ANON (1979) I5AENK0 ac al. (1980) 1979 ERNST BAECKEL GDR Mar 39 1979 NIXOLAY RESHSniYAK URS May-Jul 64 1979 HULEVE HOZ Jul-Au? 70 (BT) 1980 ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT SDR Feb-Mar 203 1980 ERNST HAECXEL OCR Jul-Aug 234 1980 DR.FRIDTJOF NANSEN NOR Oct-Mov 66 YEAR SHIP 1968 VAUBAN 1968 COUNTRY REFERENCES SUDNICBEHXO ac al. (1977) ANON (1981) ISAENXO ec al. 1980) ANON (1981) COUNTRY CODES: DAN - Denmark CER - Federal Republic of Germany POR - Portugal FRA - France MAD - Madagascar RSA - Rep. of South Africa GBR - united Kingdom M02 - Mozambique URS - Soviet Union GDR - Canaan Democratic Repuciic NOR - Norway USA - United States of Anerica - 8 - to 35.4 at the southern. The coastal waters, however, are considerably diluted by river runoff. Temperature ranges from 22°C to 29°C. The northsouth temperature decrease along mid-Channel is more pronounced during the southern summer, reaching up to 5°C. The surface water is almost always depleted in nitrates down to 50-75 m, and depleted or very low in phosphate. The Subsurface Salinity Maximum This layer is an extension of the layer formed by the waters sinking in the center of the subtropical anticyclonic gyre and spreading to the whole gyre system. In the Mozambique Channel, it extends vertically from about 75 to 300 m, with salinities of 35.5 1C_3. The first subsurface oxygen minimum is encountered within, or slightly above, this layer. Phosphate concentration rises to 0.4-1.0 and nitrate to 5-10 mg - at l~l The Intermediate Oxygen Maximum This layer is found at depths of 400-500 m, at temperatures between 10 and 12°C. It originates in the area south of the subtropical convergence by vertical convection and spreads north, participating in the general anticyclonic circulation of the subtropical gyre (Wyrtki, 1973). In the Mozambique Channel, it corresponds to the layer of salinity decrease, following the subsurface salinity maximum. The Intermediate Salinity Minimum This water mass is formed by mixing along the Antarctic polar front of the Antarctic water with warmer water of higher salinity. The mixed waters sink and continue northward as the Antarctic intermediate water. In the Mozambique Channel, this water is found at depths between 700 and 1100 m and at temperatures of 5° to 8°C. The Intermediate Salinity Maximum A layer of weak salinity maximum is found around 1200 m at temperatures of about 5°C, to which corresponds the second oxygen minimum. There is evidence that this intermediate salinity maximum is caused by mixed Red Sea Water. The Coastal Zone The prominent features of the coastal zone can be seen from the four surveys of the R.V. DR FRITDJ0F NANSEN (Saetreet ad. , 1979) carried out between August 1977 and June 1978 (Fig. 19 to 26). In September 1977 (Fig. 19 and 20), the temperature decreased from 25.5°C in the north, off Cabo Delgado and Nacala, - 9 - to 23°C off Maputo. A tongue of slightly cooler and less-saline water extends southward and northward from the Zambezi mouth. The less-saline waters are also highly turbid even in this season of low river outflow (Fig. 27). Apart from this area, the highest salinities are found close to the coast, with the exception of the area south-east of Inhambane where more-saline water intrudes from offshore. The southward flow was detected 50 to 150 km from the coast, and the northbound countercurrent, inshore over the shelf. The homogeneous water layer down to the thermocline extended to a depth of about 100 m along the north coast, the thermocline becoming shallower to the south and nearer to the coast. The surface temperature in November 1977 was higher, decreasing southward from 28.5°C along the north coast to 25°C in Delagoa Bay (Fig. 21-22). The offshore water is slightly warmer than the inshore. Salinity is slightly higher along the north coast and off Inhambane than in September. It is significantly reduced off Quelimare and Beira, but the tongue-like surface layer is missing. The maximum southward flow was at distances from 50 to 130 km seaward, with indications of an inshore northward countercurrent. The thickness of the mixed homogeneous upper layer is much smaller, the depth of the thermocline being much shallower though increasing offshore. In January-March 1978, surface temperature was 1-3°C higher than in November, the highest temperatures being over Sofala Bank, where temperatures above 30°C occurred. Except for Sofala Bank, surface waters were warmer and more saline offshore than those inshore. Salinity is much decreased compared to November along the whole coast. The lowest values, about 30 10~3, were observed in Beira Bay south of the Zambezi mouth (Fig. 23-24). The southward flow seemed to have its core 80-90 km from the coast. The course of the isohalines and isotherms shows the typical features of a coastal upwelling. The thermocline depth is about the same as in the preceding survey. Surface temperature in April-June 1978 decreased from 30°C off the northern coast to 22°C in Delagoa Bay. Surface waters are warmer offshore than inshore, as observed in the preceding surveys. The inshore salinity is drastically reduced as a result of river runoff (Fig. 25-26). This is most obvious off the Lurio river mouth south of Pemba, and off the Zambezi and Pungue mouths, from Beira to north of Quelimane. The mixed waters of lower salinity appear to flow north along the coast with the shelf north-bound countercurrent. COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS The coastal zone of Mozambique is characterized by several ecosystems: 1. River estuaries 2. Mangroves 3. Coastal lagoons 4. Coral reefs 5. Sandy or sandy muddy flats All are known to be biologically productive systems. They are also vulnerable to the effects of human activity and its by-products. Information about the ecology of the coastal zone in Mozambique is scarce and fragmentary and only available in some detail for Inhaca island (see below) where all ecosystems, with the exception of river estuaires, - 10 - are represented (McNae and Kalk, 1969). Mangrove associations and faunistic studies received more attention than the ecology of lagoons, coral reefs or sandy flats. The shrimp and fin-fish resources in the open sea have been repeatedly surveyed since Independence. Records of the hydrological regime of the main rivers are available at the National Institute for Water Resources, since 1960 for the Zambezi river, and for more than one decade for other rivers (see below). The hydrographie system of the Mozambique Channel is fairly well known. RIVERS AND FRESH-WATER INPUT Some 25 rivers reach the coast of Mozambique. From north to south, the major rivers are: the Rovuma, which marks the border with Tanzania, Lurio and Zambezi to the north, Pungue-Buzi and Save in the Sofala Bay, and Limpopo, Incomati and Maputo in Maputo Bay. All major rivers rise to the west of the territory, in neighbouring countries, on the African Veldt. The headwaters of the Limpopo lie on the margins of the Kalahari desert, the Save rises on the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe and the Zambezi in the Angola-Zambia borderland. The largest drainage basin is that of the Zambezi river, with its tributary, the Shire, the outlet of lake Malawi. The major discharge for all is from December to March, the southern summer after the rainy season, and the lowest, from June to November (Fig. 28). Large volumes of silt-laden fresh water are released to the coastal zone, drastically reducing surface salinity of the inshore waters, particularly off the major rivers, the Lurio, Zambezi and Limpopo. The diluted surface water is often seen to extend northward along the coast, with the north-bound inshore counter-current. The discharge of such large volumes of fresh water, with its suspended matter and dissolved nutrients, enhances the productivity in Sofala and Maputo Bays. All river estuaries are fringed with a dense mangrove vegetation, providing food and shelter for juvenile fish and shrimps. It is reported that the average silt load of the Zambezi waters is 400 to 500 g"m-^ but no information could be obtained about the silt load of other rivers. MANGROVES Mangroves are woody or shrubby plant species which occur along tropical and sub-tropical coastlines, on low-energy muddy-sand beaches where freshwater and sea water mix. They have the ability to grow in a saline environment. Luxurious mangrove forests stretch along the Mozambican coast, particularly on the river estuaries. Their area is estimated at 850 km^. Mangrove ecosystems in Mozambique have received much more attention than any other coastal system. Reports on their ecology and associated flora and fauna are available for Inhaca island (Kalk, 1959; McNae and Kalk, 1969), for Delagoa Bay (Schinz, 1889 and 1900), for Beira (Cott, 1929), the Morrumbene estuary (Day, 1973, 1974 and 1975), Northern Mozambique (Kalk, 1959) and various localities (Jacques, 1975). Survey reports are given by Peters (1862-64), Sim et al. (1909), Gomes e Sousa et_ al. (1943, 1951 and 1963), Pedro et^ al. (1955) Donis (1959) and Cooke (1964). - 11 - Some 70 mangrove species occur in the world, at least 10 of which are known from West Africa, Four species grow on the coast of Inhaca island and on the opposite mainland coast: Avicennia marina, Ceriops tagal, Brugujera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora mucronata. Mangroye trees are unique in their ability to cope with soil salinity CSnedaker, not datedj. One mechanism, exemplified by the Rhizophora sp., is a salt-excluding membrane in the root system. The other mechanism, exemplified by Avicennia, excretes the salts through the leaf stomata with transpiration water. Salt crystals are visible on the leaf surfaces. Avicennia sp are termed the "white mangrove". Each species develops better in some optimum salinity zone. The level of the water table and the tidal amplitude govern their zonation. Nutrients CSnedaker, op_. cit.) are supplied by the upstream terrestrial water runoff. Mobilized and organized into plant material, they are subsequently released as litter from the trees, the decomposition products of which are ultimately carried down to the coastal zone by the tidal flushing system. The productivity of mangroves is governed by the rate and amplitude of tidal flushing, itself a function of the tidal and the topographic patterns. Longer-term residence-time estuaries are more productive in fish than shorterterm ones. This is directly related to the time allowed for organic debris to undergo decomposition and remineralization. Short-residence-time estuaries, with an unrestricted communication to the sea are known for their lower inshore fishery production. In this process, particulate organic material plays an important part. The decomposing leaves are eventually reduced to small particles which become rapidly coated by attached micro-organisms, and acquire a high nutritive value for estuarine filter-feeding organisms. In addition to soluble nutrients, such particles provide the basis for a detrital food web which includes crustaceans and fish. The mangrove ecosystem is highly diversified. Numerous coastal marine species are associated with it during part or all of their life cycle; They include crustaceans and fish of economic value. Shrimp species, such as Penaeus indicus,P. semisulcatus, Metapenaeus monoceros, are believed to spawn in the deeper sea, their young reaching the mangrove swamp where they feed and develop. There seems to be a direct correlation CSnedaker, £p_. cit.) between, the fish and shrimp production in such coastal zones and the local area in mangrove forests. Beside being a highly diversified ecosystem enhancing the productivity of the coastal zone, mangrove forests also provide protection for the coastand a renewable, food and timber resource. The protection of the mangrove forests along the Mozambique coast has a direct bearing on the conservation and development of the fishery resources, shrimps in particular. Before the completion of the Cabora Bassa dam, an ecological survey of the Zambezi valley was carried out in January 1974. Davies CAfr. Wildlife, 29 (2)) reports that during a low-level aerial survey of the delta and estuary, it was noted that the mangrove was dying back from the seaward side. In places, 100 m strips of mangrove are reported to have died. Whether this was a result of the Kariba dam, which was completed in 1958, is not known. It is, however, to be expected that any considerable alteration in the flow regime of the Zambezi after damming will be reflected in the stability of the - 12 - mangroves along its delta, and consequently in the shrimp fisheries. Satellite pictures and aerial photographs of the Zambezi delta are available for 1973, 1976 and 1979. The consultant was informed that sets of pictures are to be found at the Forestry and Geology Services of the Ministry of Agriculture and at the Geology Service of the Ministry of Industry. The processing of these surveys is urgently needed and a new survey should be carried out, from the air and on land, to assess the trend of variation of the mangrove ecosystem since the Cabora Bassa was closed in 1975. The earlier surveys referred to above Csince Peters, 1862-64) should be carefully reviewed and might provide an invaluable background to a long-term study of the evolution of the mangroves of Mozambique. THE CONTINENTAL SHELF The continental shelf down to the 200 m isobath is about 70,000 km2 (Fig. 29). In the north, from Cape Delgado to the latitude of Mácala, it is extremely narrow and steep, marked by sub-marine canyons, corresponding to indentations of the coast, and with fringing reefs. The coral reefs extend south along the coast to Angoche, from where they spread out to the sea. The shelf widens to the south, becoming widest off Beira, in Sofala Bay. An area of coral formations occurs at depths between 40 and 100 m between the Zambezi Delta and Quelimane. At depths less than 50 m, between 19°30'S and 21°30'S, south of Beira, the bottom show an undulating profile, as revealed by the echo recordings of the R.V. DR. FRITDJ0F NANSEN (Fig 29b). This undulating character of the bottom is probably due to sand waves generated by the strong tidal currents in the area. The wavelength on the echograms is between 200 and 400 m and the amplitude 10 to 20 m. The shelf narrows again between 22°S and 24°S, the latitude of Inhambane, only to widen between this city and the Limpopo, and in Maputo Bay. Several shallow banks or seamoonts are found offshore. From north to south; St. Lazarus Bank, north-east of Pemba; Paisley Seamount, off Nacala, and Almirante Leite Bank, east of Maputo. The inshore central and southern part of the shelf is mostly sand and silt with some rocky outcrops and coral patches. Deeper than 150 m,the bottom is sandy or muddy. TABLE II. Area Depth Continental shelf of Mozambique, km2 (Saetre and Silva, 1979) Sofala Bazazuto 10-50m 38020 4240 4570 320 51-100m 7280 1350 3020 290 101-150m 490 960 1280 160 151-200m 490 960 1280 160 46380 7510 10150 930 10-200m North from Sofala 6190 - 13 - Delagoa Inhaca Total 71160 ç.-. A \ \ i * ""£/* * * " * I T V *Ñ* SURF A CE CURRE.VT5 - FEBRUARY - „ ^ -'£• i- 20' FIG 4: Surface circulation of the Indian Ocean in Februarv and August (according to Monatskarten für den Indischen Ozean, Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut 1960; (Wyrtki, 1973). - 14 - FIG 5. Vector-mean currents for July. T -'15 - FIG. 6: Vector-mean Currents for January. KT5 :o* iO'S - 16 - FIG 7: Simplified T-S and T-02 diagram for the Central Mozambique Channel. (Silva et al., 1981). S H» IV 13.0 0j 153 J 20- 2m » - 17 - m*' i 34 .ou .10 .20 .au .40 :')-(..'in c« i.iiii .]>' .2" .3" . 4 0 :;."i.."i(i i>. "o > • .i* j i i . i m .20 .30 .40 3 5 . 5 0 .60 .70 .80 .90 3li.0O I -2S-C T - S CURVE Station 6 -20 -24 -23 —21 -19 -18 -17 -IG -15 -14 -13 -10 - 9 - 8 - 3 17'J!» 2288 2(i8!J l 34.00 i .10 .20 .30 l .40 3 4 . 5 0 .60 .70 I i .80 .90 3.Ï.0O .10 FIG 8: "Almirante Lacerda", April 1964, S. Mozambique Channel, 24056'S, 37°42'E. T-S relationship. - 18 - 34.im •2K-C .10 .iv ..TÍI .40 'i-i.")0 .i«) :»• .'¡í,.n( T - S CURVE Station 35 -2C -24 -23 -21 •20 -19 •18 -15 -13 -12 -10 - 9 - 8 - 6 - 3 2413 / _ 34.00 FIG 9: .10 .2i> .30 .40 34.50 .<¡o 285H ;o " .so , .on ."JS.on , .10 .20 .so .40 35.Ô0 GO "Almirante Lacer_da"_, _April_1964_,_Inlet of Mozambique Channel, 16°00'S, 43°00~'E. T-S "relationship - 19 - .70 .80 -90 3li.ll» - :¡4.IHI i>fc .]" .2" .30 .40 3 4. ".> 11 r.. ,!X"i .70 ."¡.Villi .10 .»"i .311 4 0 :!ñ..'»(t l>' .7(1 T-S CURVE Station.6 - 20 24 23 - 21 20 - 19 - 18 - 16 - 15 - 13 - 12 - 10 r- 9 - 8 - 3 §4.00 .10 «0 .30 .40 34.50 -60 .70 .80 .90 FIG 10: "Almirante Lacerda", September 1964. S. Mozambique Channel, 25°03'S, 37°39'E. T-S relationship - 20 - B>i 9 0 uli.lKI :(4 (Hi .10 .$> .30 .40 -'U.jO I.i.lHI .fi" -2vc U .10 .20 .3f I I .40 .70 35.50 8" I .90 ;¡i;.oo I T-S CURVE STATION 35 1-23 -21 (-20 1-19 -18 ¿82 hJ6 hi» h 14 380 h 13 h 12 h H h lo h 9 h 6 h 5 ll!)0!) h s V I 34.00 .10 JO .30 I .40 34.50 .60 .70 401 .80 .90 I 3;>.00 I .40 35.50 .10 20 FIG 11: "Almirante Lacerda", September 1964. Inlet of Mozambique Channel, 15°52'S., 42°58'E. T-S relationship - 21 - .50 .70 .80 I .90 30.00 FIG ST NO. Sf 12: M 57 SI 3.U U S» KU» «1 • TU aw 30MJ t *C S K> Comandant Robert Giraud, 1960. T°C and S10~3, 5-6 Augusr N. from Pemba to St. Lazarius B. ST »ML» M 36 IT » J» 14 (1 14 Comandant Robert Giraud, 1960. T°C and S 10"3, 27 Jul - 1 August. Across channel, latitude of Beira. - 22 - Comandant Robert Giraud, 19J30. T°C and~~5"10-3, 2-4 August. Across channel, latitude of Angoche FIG 13: ST »0 M . SI SI Il SO 2000 250» 3000-1 » * C Comandant Robert Giraud, 1962 T°C and S 10-3, 22-26 September, Comandant Robert Giraud, 1962. "TOC and S 10-3, 20-21 September. s^Ku.17 n » »*: ç-s n s « «o H as i HA, »? wi»7 ST NO. 113 m n n n n « us ioi ios Comandant Robert Giraud 1962. -^rûG-and-S.40-3, 28-30 Septembe^- 23 - Comandant Robert Giraud, 1962. toc TcSTf I^à> ' 7-1?" "c£-. ^ FIG 14: Atlantis II 1963. T°C,S10-3, 02 ml/t-1 and PO4-P, PyM Across channel, level of Maputo. simm nv w nj at at m m m - 24 - FIG 15: Across Channel Inlet ST NO 1)í ILO .25 ' » • 112 - "v.22- ^ 5 T • **- ' J i0 0 V-"' ^ $ 0 / y y y >— \ y y y y' ^_io> ^ \ V ^il\ to \ AS 3S.0 k\ oT 0) , ^ •^Jj- tô 31J S 0.2 \*Î\ y y ' -,,2 •50 •5 0 "*!/%> '»i-v 35.3 »0 ¿0 5 0 N M',^— —10 A y y hl 12 -15 2.0^.'02.2 3 I -1 F •25' -2.S •2.5 .10 I 3 0 '2-* 2000 »00 1500 V > *c J o7 «-• P O t -P JJM Atlantis II, 1963. T°C,S10- 3 , 02 ml/i" 1 and P O ^ P - p M — 5 - 6 October. ST NO. 180 IS1 «2 «3 184 •=Ti5 A ~"\ > " 1 ^_ • ^ 77* V« M / VA 02 • --"' -s^y ?°l fC \ " to fol ¡ \V k\l ^ / ,ia r 1.2 Oj mu"' Atlantis II, 1965. T°C,S10-3, O2, ml/x-1 and -T0?=?-ptrr-5-'8-Ma-yni _. -" 25 -- FIG 16: ST NO. 2] 22 21 Across channel, 15°S. March 1983 13 M ^ Oj **-f Vaubari, 1973. T°C,S10-3 and 02 ml/i-1. E-W-Sac-tion-.— - .— - 26 - S 10-3 Prom Delagoa Hay to longitude 37°E. 1000- P04-PyM 1200 J Fig-17." ERNST HAECKEL 1979. Section VI, 3-10 Mar. - 27 - ST NO til fl r ¡ti. . M M , 23? 736 • • ' 2JT » 4 !3t • ' ' i i' • ¡2 • i HO »M ' 1S2 / ' ' i — • • \ 22 21 » - ISO» 2500 3500 S I t -C S %. level of Maputo Across channel M — * — • — * POv.O — • * . . . . . y» FIG 18: Atlantis II, 1965. T°C,S10-3, ml/l"1 and P04-PuM, 17-20 June - 28 - 3A «22* m T •- . i . . ••• ' i 36 ' i . . i . . i . . i . . i . 1 FIG 19: i • ' i "• i • ' i • » Surface temperature (°C) September 1977. - 29 - > i • » i • i i » l_l_l_ '' I ' ' ' ' ' I I ' • I ' ' I ' ' I' ' I I • I ' I I I I I FIG 20: Surface Salinity (10 -3 ) September 1977 - 30 - • 10S! 2 ' • • ' - - ' • • 12! 14«. 16Ï 18*. 20«. 22t 24». MAPI 26*.. • » ' * i ' ' i • ' | • • i • ' | I » • i ' • | ' • i • ' | ' • i • ' i • • i ' • | FIG 21: Surface temperature (°C) November 1977 -'31 - • I'' ( FIG 22: Surface salinity (10-3) November 1977 - T? - I I I 28.0 I ' ' i• • i FIG 23: Surface temperature (°C) February 1978 - 33 - • I ' M " «EL 12! Uí 16? 18«. 20? 22«. 24». 340 MAPUTO 26»... I • i i • ' l • ' i ' ' i • ' i ' • FIG 24: Surface salinity (10-3) February-March 1978 - 34 - i • ' i • ' i • ' i • • i i i i I «• I •• I I I I I I II i I FIG 25: Surface temperature (°C) April-June 1978 - 35 - I2' 10 3i* 121 14' 16' 18' 20«. 22». 2i' MAPUTO, 2S! I •' ' ' 'I I. I I I ' • i FIG 26: Surface salinity (10-3) April-June 1978. - 36 - • ' | • < i • • | i • i • • | i i | i i Fig. 27».. ERNST HAECKEL 1980,July. A) Surface salinity. B) Secchi depth (m). - 37 • 18 Incomati R 1 1 Lurio R 1 "ioV 1955-56 1 .12 I 1975-77 1979-80 1 1 10 ' 1952-53 \ 8 • 6 1 Pungue R \ 4 J .2J 1953-54 \ 1977-78 i ON DJ FMA MJ J A S ON OJ i i i » i i F M AMJJ AS Fig. 28. Fresh water input of the main rivers Limpopo R . ioV Save R .14 1960-51 A \ J2 ' 1951-52 1975-76 1974-75 / 1 0 . 8 ' 5 / / / 4/ » / - 38 - . loV 12 /I • 10 ' 8 Buzi R 14 years / J / 6/ Maputo R 1952-53 1976-77 • Pig. 28, b . - 39 - 34» 'i 38» • I I I i i i i i i FIG 29: Bathymétrie map of the sea bed off Mozambique - 40 - • iV '; :- í ' » • • ' • . . • • • . . * • , ; »S*-'" . i'",, . . - ' . - T - - ' - : ' . 4 « . . - , • ' > ! ' < , r , • •.i y • .V»!.»- 4 :» >"••• •• ' ' ¡ . Y ^ • w •• ' •'.".'Vr ••'. . , ? • • • . i- . . .'• ! r ,. V. . ! ' , ' ! ; . - - . - • ' • • • ••i • ..-\; / - • V-'-: M Fig. i • ..;v;.- i• v 'I i"'"' • t ' ,-'.* '• . UV •.-•:•.•:'!*•*,-•'•;; ' . ', ' O . 1 - » — * -••'••-.^.V.'«-1 . .-• A • '• ' ¡i l ••' '-'A 29b - Echo recording from Sofala Bank. - 41 - -vr>;.:. • Ill IMPACT OF THE CABORA BASSA DAM THE ZAMBEZI RIVER The Zambezi is the fourth largest river basin in Africa. With its tributaries, it drains the entire south central region of the continent, an area of 1.29 million km2. From its source in Zambia on the Central African Plateau, it meanders for over 3540 kilometres to discharge in the Indian Ocean. Historically, the river provided a navigable trade artery to the African interior for the Arabs in the 10th century and for the Portuguese from the 16th century onward. It crosses the Mozambique border at Feira, to reach the ocean after 830 kilometres, 560 of which are below the Cabora Bassa dam wall. On the Mozambique plain, its valley spreads out in places to a width of 5 to 8 kilometres. Near Vila Fontes, the river receives its last greatest tributary, the Shire river, which drains Lake Malawi. At its mouth, the river splits into a wide, marshy delta obstructed by sand bars. There are two main channels, each again dividing into two. Its delta is crowned by an extensive mangrove vegetation. The delta front exceeds 60 km in length. Two dams have been erected across the Zambezi river, the Kariba and the Cabora Bassa. The purpose of damming large rivers is to generate hydro-electric power, to regulate their flow regime, and to store the surplus flood water in an artificial lake instead of it overflowing to the sea. Following its impoundment, the Nile outflow to the Mediterranean decreased to 6-7%, causing a dramatic drop in the coastal zone resources. Unlike the Nile, the Zambezi output was not reduced, but the flow regime was altered. The Kariba dam, about 300 miles up-river from the Cabora Bassa,. became operational in 1958., creating the third-largest man-made lake in Africa, between Zambia and Zimbabwe. Lake Kariba covers an area of 5200 km2. It stretches for 280 km and is 32 km across at its widest. At normal level, its greatest depth reaches 130 m. The dam was built without adequate knowledge of its ecological impact on the river below, and except for some survey work mainly on the river fishes, little biological information was obtained. The residence time of water in Kariba Lake is three years. The Cabora Bassa dam was closed on December 5, 1974. After completion of the dam, the outflow of the river was deliberately cut off during February 1975 to allow the Cabora Bassa basin to fill up. The most important features of the lake are summarized in Table III. It can be seen from the data that the residence time of water in the lake is one year. - 42 - TABLE III. Some data on lake Cabora Bassa Date of closing December 1974 Geographical position 30°25'E - 32o44'E/Ï5o29'S - 16°00'S Altitude 326 m Direction of main axis E-W Direction of prevailing wind SE-NW Height of the wall 171 m Length 270 km Shoreline 1000 km Greatest width 38 km Water level at maximum capacity (AMSL) 326 m Total area at maximum capacity 2740 km2 Area under 20 m depth 51% Maximum depth 157 m Average depth 26 m Volume 62.2 km3 Annual outflow 62.2 km3 Average surface temperature 24°C FLOW REGIME The annual outflow from 1960-61 to 1980-81 and the mean monthly outflow for 1960-61 to 1974 and from 1975 to 1980 are shown on Figure 30. From the season of minimal rainfall, the outflow rose steadily until a peak was reached in February-March, declining rapidly afterwards. The amplitude over one year cycle recorded at Matundo, below the Cabora Bassa gorge, was considerable: from 2-3 x 109m3 per month in September-October to about 13 x 109 in March (Fig. 31). The actual volume input to the sea, however, cannot be inferred from these data, since part of the river water was lost before reaching the ocean, through irrigation, evaporation and transpiration. Just before the delta, however, the lower Zambezi receives an additional input from the Shire tributary. As mentioned above, the river outflow was completely stopped for 3 weeks in February 1975, but the normal rate was soon restored in the following month. The monthly pattern for the six years following the impoundment, however, shows several distinctive features (Fig 31). 1. The outflow rate (1975-1981) ranged from 0.00 to 17145 m 3 s- 1 in the pre-impoundment years, 1960 to 1974, it ranged from 310 to 11566 m3s~l. The average rate increased from 2522 m3s-l to 2630 m^s-l after its impoundment. - 43 - The monthly amplitude is now more reduced, 5.3 to 12 x 10'm^ per month. From December to July, it is much more even than in the pre-impoundment years, except for the February drop, fluctuating between 9.3 and 11 x lO^m-* per month (Fig. 31). The total yearly outflow past Matundo is of the same order if not significantly higher than, in the years preceding the damming. From 1960 to 1974 it ranged from 40 to 126 x 109m3 per year and from 1975 to 1981 from 67 to 168 x lO^nH per year. The flow regime between 1960 and 1981 appears to have followed a cyclic trend, with peak floods every 4 to 6 years. It rose to abrupt peaks in 1963, 1969, 1974 and 1978 (Fig. 30). The 1978 peak was the highest in 20 years. THE MARINE FISHERIES Three types of fisheries are practiced in Mozambique, traditional or subsistence, artisanal or semi-industrial and industrial fisheries. Traditional fishermen" number about 20,000. They use small dug-outs or planked boats, 2 to 5 m in length, the "casquinha" the "coche" and the "almadia". Bamboo rafts were used until recently in Maputo bay, the "Chi-tataru". Their fishing activity is restricted to within three miles of the shore, using beach seines, gill nets, hand lines and weirs. When not consumed fresh, the fish are sun-dried, salted or smoked. Their landings were estimated to be about 25,000 tonnes in 1981. Motor-boats, 14 to 20 m in length, are used by the artisanal or semi-industrial fleet. Its fishing gear consists of hand lines, trawl nets and gill nets. Their means of conserving the fish are still unsatisfactory. Industrial fisheries introduced in 1965, concentrate on shrimps and, to a lesser extent, on lobsters. Most vessels are double-rigged freezer trawlers manned by 16 to 20 men. Beside the government-owned "Efripel" company, licensed Soviet and Spanish trawlers have been fishing off Mozambique. It is recognised that fishery statistics are still unreliable and only indicative. In addition, official statistics are missing for the traditional or artisanal fisheries. The estimated landings, however, show a steady increase from 1961 to 1980 (Table IV) in spite of some fluctuations in 1975 and 1977-78. This increase results from the increased fishing effort following the introduction of motor-boats. The yield, however, is still very low, considering the extent of the continental shelf and the estimated resources. - 44 - TABLE IV : Year Estimates of total and crustacean landings based on FAQ Statistical Yearbook and on "Basic Fishery Statistics in Mozambique (Anon). Crustacean landings Total L 1965 599 1966 1019 4181 5347 1967 1037 5047 1968 1070 5707 1969 1125 7028 1970 1128 7634 1971 2554 10423 1972 2689 10413 1973 3442 13338 1974 6672 15655 1975 4339 11486 1976 4822 14900 1977 13950 1978 12940 1979 15000 Estimates of the potential fish resources of the continental shelf of Mozambique vary within a wide range. As part of the FAO Indian Ocean Programme, the R.V. PROFESSOR MEASYATSEV carried out fishery investigations along the coast of Mozambique in January-February 1976 and in August 1977. Using a combination of acoustic methods and catch rate, Burczynski (1976) gives a total stock size of 181 thousand tonnes. Owing to bad weather conditions, the stock size in Delagoa Bay was probably much underestimated. From the same investigations, Birkett (1978) presented some abundance estimates based on the "swept area" method for Sofala Bay and Delagoa Bay: 220,000 tonnes for January and 103,300 tonnes for August 1977. From 24 August 1977 to 20 June 1978 an expedition was carried out with the Norwegian R.V. DR FRIDTJOF NANSEN to survey the fishing potential of the waters adjacent to Mozambique (Saetre and Silva, 1979). The estimates obtained are summarized in the following Table V. It should be noted that the stock size presented is the maximum observed and that the data are given by the authors as the result of approximations rather than of accurate calculations. The mesopelagic fish stock, estimated as 1 million tonnes, consists mainly of lantern fish which are widely distributed in the northern Indian Ocean. This group, however, is not believed to represent any immediately significant resource. - 45 - TABLE V; Summary of the marine fishery resources of Mozambique (.thousand tonnes) (Saetre and Silva, 1979) Maximum Stock size Present Catch Maximum potential yield DEMERSAL FISH St. Lazarus Bank Rest of the coast 10 200 0 30 300 300 0 30 0.5 2-3 300 150 0 1000 1 50 PELAGIC FISH Anchovies Other small pelagics Larger pelagics Sharks MESOPELAGIC FISH ? 1000 ? ? CRUSTACEANS Shallow-water shrimps Deep-water shrimps*) Spiny lobsters Crayfish 16 0.5-1 1 0.1-0.5 12 0.5 0.1 7 15 7 0.3 7 REEF FISH ? 7 5-10 INSHORE FISH ? 7 5-10 *)includes only the stock south of Bazaruto Island. In. addition to fin-fish and crustaceans, shell-fish and holothurians contribute, to the resources. A list of the commercial species, with their scientific and vernacular names, is given in Annex 1. A catalogue of the fish- of the Mozambique-South. Zone was recently published by the Institute of Fishery Investigations CSousa and Dias, 1981). The possibility of a long-term deleterious effect of the regulation of the Zambezi river on the marine living resources is a matter of much concern to the country. The drastic reduction In the shrimp, the pelagic and demersal fish, resources off the Nile delta following the completion of the Aswan High Dam, stands as a disquietening example. The two cases, however, are hardly comparable, the ecosystems being fundamentally different, and the Zambezi fresh-water output was not reduced by damming, as happened with the Nile, though the flow regime was altered. Any attempt to assess the impact of the Cabora Bassa dam on the coastal zone and the living marine resources in Mozambique is faced with constraints resulting mainly from the lack of reliable information. No baseline information is available on the ecosystem of the coastal zone, in particular, the nutrient salts, the phytoplankton and Zooplankton production and dynamics of the river delta before and after the damming. - 46 - It should be mentioned here that an extensive collection of plankton has been carried out during the expedition of the R.V. DR FRITDJOF NANSEN from August 1977 to June 1978. The collection is kept at the Fisheries Directorate in Maputo and still awaits sorting and processing. Reliable statistics on the total fish catch, as well as on the catch per unit effort, before the damming, are not available to compare with the present yield. The fact that the continental shelf resources are anyway by far underexploited results in an additional uncertainty. Fluctuations in the fish stock would not reflect on the fisheries yield as long as there remains a large stock surplus available. If this is true in general terms, however, it might not be so for a particular population in a restricted area, such as the shrimp stock on the Sofala Bank. The Shrimp Fishery as an Index of Possible Alterations in the Coastal Zone. The species composition of the shrimp population, its biological characteristics, standing stock and yield per unit effort have been investigated for Sofala Bank and the area north of the Zambezi delta (Saetre and Silva, 1978: Ulltang et_ al. 1980; and Ulltang, 1981). The shrimp fishery's yield, therefore, can provide an index of the environmental alterations over several years. In 1977, a first preliminary assessment of the shallow-water prawn stocks in Sofala Bay was made, based on logbook data from part of the fishing fleet, the "Efripel" trawlers, for the years 1974^76. The estimates of Ulltang et_ al. (1980) are as follows: Estimated shrimp catches from 1968 to 1973, Sofala bank (Freitas and Aranjo, in Ulltang eit a^, 1980) Year Catch (tonnes) 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 41 232 472 1651 1746 2880 Estimated shrimp catches for the years 1974 to 1976 (Ulltang ^t al.1980) Year 1974 1975 1976 Catch (tonnes 5651 5408 4822 The catch consists mainly of Penaeus indicus, followed by P_. monoceros and P_. monodon. Figures 34 and 35 show the total catch per hour of trawling and the catch per hour of trawling for the three main species from 1974 to 1976 and 1977 to mid-1980. Looking at both figures, it appears that the 1979 level is above the 1974-1975 to 1976. There was also a significant increase in 1976 and 1977. The factors causing fluctuations in the recruitment are not clear; nor is what should be considered as the normal level. What comes out of this comparative analysis, however, is that the closing of the dam in 1975 does not seem to have had a significant impact on the shrimp fishery's yield. - 47 - CONCLUSIONS The.total yearly fresh-water input of the Zambezi River to the coastal zone remains unaltered by dams, but its flow regime tends to be more even. No information could be obtained on the water quality and the silt load before and after damming. The silt load, however, appears to be still high, judging by the extent of the large area of high turbidity north and south of the river delta. The fishery resources are clearly under-exploited, as shown by all estimates of the potential resources of the coastal zone of Mozambique. With the increased fishing effort in recent years, the total landings have also increased. The total yield of the fisheries, therefore, can provide no indication of a possible impact of the damming of the Zambezi on the resources. The shrimp fisheries on Sofala bank can provide a sensitive index of any environmental alterations. Up to mid-1980 however, there is no evidence of detrimental alterations. - 48 - 180 • 1978 160 ' 10 V 140 1969 1963 120 1974 100 80 60 40 ZAMBEZr 20 R 1960-61 1980-81 0 i,i i i i—i P i g . 3 0 . Total annual input. 1960-1974. 13 V 12 loV 1975 - 1980 11 10 -9 8 7 6 5 4 3 N 0 Pig. 3 1 . Plow pattern. - 49 - arm Fig. 32 Cabora Bassa Dam Profile - 50 - Y.;K¿*c¡n "-s©-* ~*: 'i-5-P*fesi*Ci^«i» m f M •"•.-• 'fc"-^"-•î "fuM^**- \ FIG' 33 : A view of the dam and the lake -51 - % ' - I I 000 •10000 • 1000 • 000 »0- - 7 000 TOTAl «000 S 000 M. M O N O C C B O S i 000 / V - / \ '-' i ? I l t i I « I « l F I w I a I • P. IHOICUS • P. MONOOON I I J t « * i o u j UTS * t i io ii M O N T H 1*7« FIG 34: Total catch per hour of trawling and catch per hour of trawling for the three Inain specTei", "by^montn forr~tTïë_pëfioa 1974-1976. The right hand ordinate shows the corresponding stock size estimates using "the-"Swept area"" method. "*~ - 52 - „1S000 160, 140. • -. U04 TOTAL .uooc P. ÍNOICUS M.MONOCEROS .13000 P. HONOOON 130. .12000 120 .11000 HO. .10000 i 00. .9000;: ui z «000 § so e Sec e «Ü 7C. ef t 60. . SO : t 0 ' 30. - 20 10 MONTH TEAR • »""« J T M A M J J A S O N O 1977 J F MA MJ J Á S Ó N Ó J F M Á M J J Á S Ó N Ó Í F M A M J j 1978 1979 1980 FIG 35: Shallow-water prawns, Sofála Bank. Total catch per hour of -"trawling for-the -"three main -species y by-month fut Lhe period January 1977 - June 1980 (data for 1980 are preliminary). -The right-itand—ordinate—shows-the—corr-espending—s~tock size estimates using the "swept area" method - 53 - IV MAN - POWER AND INSTITUTIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE HISTORICAL Knowledge of the marine environment and the marine resources in Mozambique, as well as other former Portuguese colonies in Africa, was derived at first from the works of Portuguese scientists on short-term missions. The collected samples and the observations recorded were subsequently processed in Protugal. Investigations were also carried out from various research vessels which operated in the Mozambique Channel or by foreign scientists on scientific expeditions. Most of the earlier works dealt with faunistic and ichthyological surveys. Since Independence, however, the physical oceanography of the channel and the potential resources of the coastal waters, especially the shrimp stock, have received more attention. In 1936, the Portuguese Government set up a co-ordination committee, the Committee for Geographical Missions and Colonial Research (Junta das Missoes Geográficas e de Investigaço'es Coloniais, JMGIC) . In 1955, a multidisciplinary institute was created, the Institute of Scientific Research of Mozambique (Instituto de Investigaçâo Científica de Moçambique, IICM). In the years 1962-1963, General University Studies were initiated at "Lourenço Marques", to be developed in 1970 into the University of Lourenço Marques. A permanent mission, the Mission for Bio-Oceanography and Fishery Studies in Mozambique, was set up in 1966 and remained active until 1974. This mission was replaced by the Fisheries Directorate. In 1973, the JMGIC or Committee for Geographical Missions and Colonial Research became the Committee for Overseas Scientific Research, (Junta de Investigates Científicas do Ultramar, JICU) . It is only -since 1955, therefore, that research activities in Mozambique have acquired a certain autonomy through the Institute of Scientific Research, and, later, the University instead of remaining entirely dependent on Lisbon. THE UNIVERSITY OF EDUARDO M0NDLANE The University of Lourenço Marques, now Eduardo Mondlane University, was created in 1963 under the colonial regime. The great majority of the students were of Portuguese extraction. On Independence in 1976, the number of •University students fell from 3000 to 700 the following year. As a result, and with the dramatic shortage in elegible secondary-school graduates, the very existence of the University became problematic. The Government, however, decided to maintain the University studies, but in accordance with the country's priorities at this stage. The recruitment of the students and their orientation are decided at the level of the Ministries of Planification and of Education. At present, the University has the following faculties: Agronomy, Veterinary, Medicine, Science (Physics, Chemistry, Geology), Biology (discontinued since 1979), Engineering, Arts, Education and Law. - 54 - The B.Sc. courses in Biology were discontinued in 1979, and are to be resumed in 1984. All teaching staff at the University are expatriates on long or short-term contracts. The teaching language is Portuguese. A number of secondary school graduates have been sent on study missions to east European countries, such as Bulgaria and the USSR. TABLE VI Study Missions in Foreign Countries Starting date of mission 1981 1982 1983 1984 Speciality Biology Chemistry 5 5 6 6 5 6 7 7 Physics 5 6 7 7 Mathematics 5 7 9 9 Faculty of Biology The Faculty of Biology was established in 19.66-1967. a Centre CDepartment) of Ecology. The Faculty includes Premises: There are teaching laboratories to accommodate about 40 students and several staff laboratories each of ahout 12 m^. The Faculty museum displays a large collection of terrestrial and marine specimens, all of them well preserved, classified and labelled. The marine specimens comprise several hundred species- of lamellihranchs., corals, crustaceans and fish. A collection of about 25 thousand plant specimens is kept in the Faculty herbarium, but only a few are marine. Small aquaria for f resh.-water fish are kept in one of the staff laboratories, and a large aquarium contains fiddler crabs ÇUca sp) raised for bioassay experiments on water quality. The Faculty library comprises about 40Q text books and one periodical, all of them in English, which, limits their accessibility to the students. Microscopes are available for 3Q students. In addition to its central premises, the Faculty owns an important Marine Station located on Inhaca island, in Maputo Bay. The ecological sites of this Island and the facilities afforded by the station are described elsewhere. Teaching Staff; The qualified staff at the Faculty of Biology consists of four expatriates, only one.of them being a marine biologist. Curricula and Graduates; Until 1975, the Faculty was structured on a five-year curriculum; three years in basic biological disciplines and two for specialisation in Education or an optional biological discipline. Almost all - 55 - the graduates before 1975 were Portuguese and left the country on Independence, only five of them joining the Fisheries Directorate. From 1976 to 1979, one group of 10 students graduated from the Faculty, after following a shortened 3-year curriculum, 4 of them in General Ecology. The latter were appointed to the Fisheries Directorate as junior Fishery Biologists, but at the Directorate and the Faculty there is a general feeling that their level is unsatisfactory. The possibility of their following complementary courses has been put forward by the consultant and agreed upon by the concerned authorities. As mentioned earlier, the Biology and Ecology Studies were discontinued in 1979 and are to be resumed in 1984. New curricula have been set up by the consultant in co-operation with the staff of the Faculty (Annexes 2 and 3), for submission to the University before resumption of the courses. No graduates in Biology or Ecology are to be expected before 1988-1989. THE FISHERIES INSTITUTIONS In 1976 the Missao de Estudio Bioceanologica de Pescas de Moçambique (MEBPM) , established by the colonial authorities, was replaced by a National Fisheries Directorate (Direçao Nacional de Pescas) within the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. At a later stage, a Secretariate of State for Fisheries was established. The inland fisheries remain the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Fisheries Directorate is responsible for the management and development of marine fisheries, at the industrial and at the artisanal level, and for fishery investigations. It encompases three major services: (i) The Directorate for Industrial Fisheries, responsible for the national sector or "Emopesca", at Angoche, Beira and Quelimane, and for the bilateral joint ventures, "Efripel" with Spain, "Pescamar" with Japan and "Mesopesca" with the URSS. (ii) The Directorate for Small-scale or Artisanal Fisheries with its fishing complexes at Ibo, Matangula and Moma. (iii) The Institute for Fisheries Development (Instituto de Desenvolvimento Pesqueiro, IDP). The Fisheries Directorates are supplemented by service and logistics units, including technology and quality control. A Training Centre for Fisheries was established in Matóla in May 1978 with the assistance of FAO. Its objective is the training and development of personnel at the level of master fishermen and mechanics. FAO provides training experts (FAO project MOZ/77/001) and NORAD provides assistance in the form of navigational equipment. The activities of the fisheries institutions are carried out with considerable bilateral and international assistance at all levels. - 56 - Institute of Fisheries Investigations (IDP) The activities of this Institute are directly related to the country's needs and developmental objectives. They comprise the monitoring and assessment of the fishery resources, particularly the shrimp and lobster fisheries, the pelagic and demersal fisheries. The IDP is also involved in the processing and analysis of the océanographie data collected during cruises of foreign océanographie vessels in Mozambican waters. The available laboratory space consists of four 16 to 18 m^ laboratories and a 25 m^ library. The national scientific staff is limited to five fishery biologists. All of them are graduates of 1976 from the Faculty of Biology. The IDP has a quality control and sampling centre or "Delegation" at Beira and a smaller one at Quelimane. The IDP library includes 150 journals and about 1500 books. The periodicals and the text-books are up to date and directly relevant to the activities of the service. The recent FAO and Unesco technical reports and workshop reports pertaining to marine sciences and marine resources are also available. The institute publishes the results of its investigations in its own journal, the Revista de Investigaçoes Pesqueras. Man-power : It consists of 5 senior fishery biologists who graduated in 1976 from the Faculty of Biology, one quality control technologist and one fish-gear technologist. The planned activities of the Institute in the coming years were estimated to require 28 new scientific staff. These requirements, however cannot be met by the University before 1989, since B.Sc teaching has been discontinued and will only be resumed in 1984. Short-term and long-term fishery research priorities: (i) Assessment of marine resources; shallow water shrimp; spiny lobster; small pelagic fish; demersal traw fishery stocks and by-catch of shrimp fisheries. (ii) Environmental studies and physical oceanography. (iii) Fishing gear and experimental fishing. (iv) Fish handling and processing (v) Marine aquaculture - 57 - Institute of Scientific Research The Institute of Scientific Research of Mozambique, like its homologue in Angola, was created in 1955. At present, the Institute is affiliated to the University as a central library and a co-ordination centre for the Faculty libraries. Its library is well indexed and receives a large number of periodicals in basic science and in marine biology. The Institute however suffers from the general lack of trained personnel. A request for support to upgrade the Institute library was submitted to Unesco in December 1982. Three projects proposed: (i) consultant for the improvement of the library system; (ii) a training course for librarians, and (iii) consultant-expert for the lay-out of a building plan for a new University Central Library. Institute of Agronomic Research This Institute is affiliated to the Ministry of Agriculture. It has eight departments: Soils and Water; Experimentation and Crop Breeding; Fertilizers; Systematic Botany; Pastures; Pest Control; Chemistry, Food Analysis? and Agrochmatology. The technical staff is unevenly distributed. The Department of Soils and Water has enough staff, but qualified staff is still wanting for most other Departments, particularly in the fields of entomology, phytopathology, systematic botany and chemistry. The Institute has an excellent herbarium and a museum of tropical and equatorial plants from Mozambique. The collection is well looked after and continuously enriched. - 58 - V INHACA MARINE RESEARCH STATION BACKGROUND The Station is part of the. Eduardo Mondlane University. Created in 1952, it remains the only marine station of its kind between Zanzibar and Durban.. It has been regularly used in the past by the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, for teaching classes of students and for marine research.« The station provides facilities for groups of students from neighbouring countries, such as Zimbabwe and Botswana. It is used at present by the E.M. University at Maputo for teaching and training secondaryschool teachers in terrestrial and marine ecology. A young Mozambican biologist resides permanently at the station. The staff of the Faculty of Biology are aware of the importance of this Station and contribute actively to the protection and to the study of the sites on the island. The Station provides housing facilities for 40 students and 6 visiting staff (Table VII). There are three laboratires, a museum, a herbarium, a small library and two outboard fiher-glass boats. Fresh water is provided by 4 electric water pumps, and power, hjr two generators. Building repairs, laboratory and ancillary equipment, however, are badly needed (Table VIII). The interest of the Station resides in the proximity of several almost untouched tropical coastal systems. Its scientific importance is greatly enhanced by the existence of detailed studies of the island's marine fauna and flora and of a vast reference collection in the museum and herbarium. The availability of the reference collection and of the scientific documentation Is of capital importance for the development of marine research and training at the University. THE OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTING OF INHACA ISLAND The island of Inhaca forms part of the barrier between the bay of Maputo or Delagoa bay and the Indian Ocean. The bay itself is formed from the confluence of four rivers: The Maputo to the south, the Umbeluzi to the west, and two others, the TembrI and the Matóla joining to form an estuary, the Estuario do Rio Espirito Santo. The bay is shallow, most of it not exceeding a depth of 10 m. Its eastern boundary is formed by a peninsula, the tip of which Is cut off to form the island of Inhaca. The spit formed by the peninsula prolonged by islands and sand banks is similar to other northpointing spits along the coast of Mozambique, formed by sand deposition from the Inshore northward countercurrent. The southward-moving Mozambique current, originating in the northern Mozambique channel from the South Equatorial current, runs along the continental slope. It generates an inshore current between itself and the coast flowing In the opposite direction. This countercurrent is of a lower temperature than the Mozambique current. The waters on the eastern oceanic coast of Inhaca island are therefore cooler than those of the bay. Large daily temperature variations are associated with the tides. At Inhaca, the average tidal range at spring tides is 3,3 i; as the tide, flows, cooler water comes in from the ocean and a drop of 4-5° C in the. temperature has been observed. The oceanic water east of the island has a salinity of 35.0-35.2 10~3, except during the flood season of the Ihcomati river on the north of Maputo bay, in February-March. The - 59 - estuarine outflow within the bay does not usually reach the island. The salinity on the flats is affected by evaporation during low tides, but there is also much seepage of freshwater on to the beach. The line of seepage is indicated by the presence of a characteristic green turbellarian worm, Convoluta macnaei. The salinity in the mangrove channels is very variable between 8 10_;3 and 42 10~3, owing to evaporation, seepage and rainfall. THE COASTAL SYSTEMS AT INHACA ISLAND Inhaca island is so far unaffected by pollution and, as a natural marine park, it remains fairly protected from human interference. Its high scientific interest for research and training on the coastal systems derives not only from the richness and diversity of its tropical and subtropical fauna and flora but also from the variety of ecosystems, habitats and coastal processes it displays. Around the northern and southern bays of the island, where wave action is minimal on muddy sand flats, with fresh-water drainage mixing with sea water, luxuriant mangrove associations are found. The composition of the substratum, the water table and the tidal level combine to distribute the four mangrove species into zones. Each of these is paralleled with associated microflora and crustaceans. The coral reefs at Inhaca, at 26° south are the southernmost reefs in East Africa. They offer the opportunity to study the composition and dynamics of this tropical community at its environmental limit. Of the approximately 500 coral species known to exist in the Indian Ocean basin, 137 have been recognized from Inhaca and are represented in the Station reference collection. Although the reefs appear to be continuously extending, with the appearance of new unrecorded species, they are partly subject to onshore erosion. Sand flats are uncovered at ebb-tide exposing eel grasses with associated algae and invertebrates. The eel grasses are represented by eight species of distinct zonation. Two of them, (Cymodocea serrulata and £. rotunda) are at their southernmost limit. Flowering and fruit formation occur more commonly on the warmer western side. The small harbour of Inhaca island is also one of the main fishing centres on Maputo Bay. The daily landings of fish catch can provide material for the study of fish biology and composition in the bay. ROLE OF INHACA MARINE RESEARCH STATION AS A NATIONAL AND SUB-REGIONAL CENTRE FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH IN MARINE SCIENCES. The ecological interest of the island of Inhaca, the housing and laboratory facilities provided by the Station, in addition to the existence of large reference collections and of a large body of information accumulated since 1950, contribute to make of this Station a perfectly suited centre for field training and research, at the national and sub-regional levels. At the National Level The Station will have a central function in the E.M. University plans to develop Marine Science and Marine Resource Studies. While lecturing can take place on the University premises, field and laboratory training will be mostly performed at the Station. Regular monthly trips will be organized as a part of the curriculum and in particular on the following topics: - 60 - (i) marine chemistry (ii) the biota, algae, sea-grasses, plankton, intertidal invertebrates. (iii) ichthyology,fish biology, fishing activities (iv) the ecosystems and the various habitats, mangroves, corals, intertidal flats, rocky shores. At a later stage, candidates for higher study degrees, the "licenciatura" will carry on their theses research projects at the Station. Such research projects can fit into the research programme elaborated by the Faculty staff and outlined elsewhere. At the Sub-regional Level Students of several inland Universities, particularly from neighbouring land-locked countries, such as Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Malawi, have no access to the ocean and no oportunity to become familiar with marine life and the marine environment. The study of marine invertebrates and of marine algae is part of the curriculum of Biological Sciences, Zoology and Botany. Students in basic science, including General Ecology, will be able to observe and study the living organisms in their environment at Inhaca. The Station will also provide facilities for staff members and research workers from inland universities wishing to further their experience in marine sciences or to carry on research projects. The reference collection at the Station will enable such staff members to collect and identify specimens of the marine biota for educational purposes at their respective universities. It is strongly recommended, therefore, that the possibility of an agreement be explored between the parties concerned to raise the capabilities of the Inhaca Marine Research Station to a level allowing it to serve as a sub-regional training and research centre for the countries of Central Africa and possibly of the western Indian Ocean. The main objective should be the organization of yearly regional training courses on tropical coastal ecosystems. CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE ACTIVITIES OF THE CENTER OF ECOLOGY, FACULTY OF BIOLOGY AT INHACA STATION The Centre of Biology, which is in charge of the Station and of the monitoring of Inhaca reserves, has elaborated proposals for the activities to be carried out at this Station. The proposals were discussed by the Director and staff of the Faculty with the consultant. They deal with three complementary areas. (i) research projects (ii) field work for university students and teachers, in training, including furthering the reference collection and herbarium, and (iii) conservation and monitoring of reserves. - 61 - The stated objectives are as follows: (a) To investigate the least known habitat of the island, namely the wetlands, and to build up more information on the ecology of coral reefs, turtles and dugongs. Such information will contribute to improving the management of the island's reserves. (b) To implement the University objectives of including as much field experience as necessary in the curricula for Biology, Ecology and Geography. This necessitates an improvement in the infrastructure of the Station, additions and maintenance of the reference collections and the availability of experienced instructors. (c) To implement development projects aimed at resolving the contradiction between the objectives of conservation and the subsistence of the small population of fishermen and cultivators at Inhaca. The six research projects envisaged, some of which are currently being implemented, are summarized in the following: Research programmes at Inhaca planned by the Faculty of Biology: 1. 2. 3. Study of the Coral-reef Ecosystem Duration : one year Project leader : Pauline Depelchin, lecturer Other personnel : one assistant, one non-technical staff. Estimated cost : US$ 4,000. Development of Wetland Conservation Policy Duration : six months Project leader : still to be decided Other personnel : one assistant Equipment : maps, aerial photographs, herbarium Estimated cost : US$ 900 Monitoring of Marine Turtles (nesting on the island, protection of nesting areas and tagging of turtles) Duration : three years Project leader : the resident biologist Other personnel : two reserve guards Equipment needed : camping equipment, tagging material Estimated cost : US$ 300 per annum N.B. : Project already in progress - 62 - 4. 5. Monitoring of Dugong Population extermination of extent of sea-grass beds, their species, composition and distribution). Duration : three years Project leader : the resident biologist Other personnel : one assistant, one aerial survey expert. Estimated cost : US$ 1,500 Fish-catch Analysis and Monitoring of Fishing Activities. Duration : one year Project leader : Pauline Depelchin Other personnel : one assistant Estimated cost : US$ 600 N.B. project already in progress. 6. Collection of Hydrographie Data (salinity, temperature, currents turbidity). Duration : three years Project leader : the resident biologist Other personnel : one assistant, one non-technical staff Equipment : current-meter, 2 reversing thermometers, 2 Nansen bottles, Salinometer Estimated cost : US$ 5,000 initially, US$ 750 running cost per annum. PREREQUISITES FOR THE REACTIVATION OF INHACA STATION The reactivation of the Marine Research Station at Inhaca requires: (a) the upgrading of the infrastructure of the building and the purchase of laboratory equipment, and (b) the recruitment of qualified personnel in teaching and research. The laboratory equipment needed, the repairs and additions to the infrastructure of the buildings are summarized in Table IX. An approximate budget of US$ 250,000 is foreseen over two years. " As the Station is affiliated to the Faculty of Biology, in particular the future Department of Marine Sciences and Marine Resources, it is the teaching staff of this Department who will be responsible for the field training at the Station and for sponsoring the small research projects of the "Licenciatura". As mentioned elsewhere, qualified staff will be needed in four major specializations; Physicochemical Oceanography; Tropical Coastal Systems, inclduing the biota and their ecology; Plankton; and Fisheries. It is, however, recommended that a close co-operation be initiated between the new Department and the corresponding Department at the University of Dar Es Salaam, particularly for the organization of a yearly sub-regional training course. - 63 - TABLE VII Number of recorded Invertebrate and Protochordate species in the five littoral zones at Inhaca island (compiled from Maenae and Kalk, 1958). Most of them represented in the reference collection Supra littoral Upper mid-littoral Lower mid-lit Upper infra-lit Lower infra-lit COELENTERATA Hydrozoa 1 10 Anthozoa 4 1 Actiniaria 4 2 Alcyonaria 7 Madreporaria 137 11 POLYCHAETA SIPUNCULOIDEA 40 83 1 2 • ECHIUROIDEA 1 1 CRUSTACEA Decapoda 11 21 Palinura 35 87 19 28 5 Stomatapoda Amphipoda 2 Isopoda 3 Cirripedia 8 3 3 7 4 2 MOLLUSCA 1 Amphineura Gasteropoda 7 20 28 106 Polecypoda 1 4 19 31 Asteroidea 1 10 Echinoidea 1 13 Holothuriodea 5 14 2 ECHINODERMATA Crinoidea 1 1 PHORONIDA BRACHIOPODA 1 PROTOCHORDATA Enteropneusta 3 2 Ascidiacae 9 7 1 Cephalochordata -. 64 - TABLE VIII The. Marine. Research. Station, at Inhaca Island. Facilities, Repairs and Additions Needed. Housing Facilities Remarks Repairs and Additions needed Students Two dormitories, 15x16 m each, for 40 students. Mattresses to be replaced Refectory, 12x5 m, for 40 persons Kitchen, with 2 gas stoves and 3 refrigerators In poor condition Stoves to be replaced, refrigerators repaired Roof leaking Roof repairs needed Plumbing and electrical systems to be overhauled Stove and refrigerator in poor condition Stove to be replaced, refrigerator repaired Gas stove leaking new gas stove needed Showers Guest lecturers Four rooms, 4x4 m Showers Residence Staff and Research Workers. Director's house, 10x20 m Three bedrooms, Living room Dining room Bathroom Kitchen Resident biologist's house, 10x15 m Two bedrooms Dining room Kitchen Bathroom Radio transmitter-receptor Staff residences, three 4x8 m each with: One bedroom Dining room Kitchen with stove and refrigerator Bathroom - 65 - Main Building Three laboratories, two 3x10 m one 3x4 m Museum housing reference collection, 10x10 m Remarks Equipment insufficient Laboratory sinks out of order Roof leaking, cabinets, sample and museum jars insufficient Storage room for additional samples, 9x9 m Herbarium, 5x3 m Repair of roofs Overhaul of plumbing and electrical systems Five laboratory sinks Ten metal cabinets for reference collection Five wooden cabinets for herbarium Cabinets insufficient Offices, three 3x3 m Library, 2x2 m Repairs and Additions needed Drying oven 1000 sample jars and 1000 museum jars Library poor Store room, 2x2 m 20 stereoscopic microscopes, 20 magnifying glasses 40 dissecting kits Plankton nets Small bottom grab Books and periodicals for library - 66 - TABLE IX Summary of Repairs and Additions Required for Inhaca Station Estimated budget First Year Laboratory Equipment 20 stereoscopic microscopes 40 magnifying glasses 40 dissecting kits 1000 jars 1000 specimen tubes plankton nets manuals and periodicals Estimated budget US$ 60,000 Estimated budget US$ 50,000 Total Budget, first year US$ 110,000 Logistics 2 electric water pumps 3 generators 5 laboratory sinks 4 gas stoves Second year Laboratory Equipment 4 research microscopes 1 salinometer glassware 1 analytical balance chemicals Estimated budget US$ - 67 - 90,000 TABLE IX (cont'd) Logistics Roof, plumbing and electric system overhaul. 15 cabinets for museum and herbarium 6 refridgerators overhaul 1 air conditioner for wet laboratory repair of sea-water well and pumps engine for Land-Rover. Estimated budget US$ TOTAL second year US$ 130,000 GRAND TOTAL, repairs and equipment US$ 250,000 50,000 VI RECOMMENDATIONS The following recommendations refer to the development of Marine Sciences and Marine Resources studies at Eduardo Mondlane University, Maputo, Mozambique. BACKGROUND The lack of qualified man-power in Mozambique is a problem of critical importance at this stage. The authorities, however, are aware of the gravity of this situation and plans are being actively studied to restructure education at all levels to meet with the country's needs. The very limited number of secondary school graduates that can be admitted at the University and the pressing needs for immediate development objectives, led to the interruption of the basic science studies, priority being given to the formation of secondary school teachers and to applied professional studies. Basic sciences are only taught to candidates in Engineering, Veterinary, Agronomy and Medicine. The basic science courses, as such, are not to be resumed before 1984. As a result, the shortage in B.Sc graduates will last for longer in these disciplines than the others. The marine and inland fishery resources of Mozambique are much more important than would appear from the present yield of the fisheries. The current and foreseen projects of the Fisheries Directorate rely almost entirely on foreign assistance, except for a handful of young scientists. Though the manpower needs are increasing, no recruitment of national scientists can be expected before the last years of this decade unless immediate steps are taken. In this perspective, the formation of capabilities in fishery investigations and related marine sciences acquires a high degree of priority. On the other hand, with the development of industrialization, agriculture and urban settlements in Mozambique and in the adjacent countries, pollutioninduced modifications of the ecosystem are to be expected. This is particularly true for the major rivers of Mozambique, the source and drainage basins of which lie partly in the sourrounding countries, The marine parks and reserves, at Inhaca island and elsewhere, are of invaluable scientific interest and are part of the heritage of mankind. Such natural environments call for an attentive monitoring and for thorough investigations by experienced aquatic and marine ecologists. No channel exists at present at the University to meet the country's needs in this vital area. The following recommendations for the initiation of Marine Science and Marine Resource studies at the University have been conceived in full awareness of the present situation in Mozambique and of its pressing needs for the rational development of its renewable marine resources and the protection of its marine environment. The recommended strategy has been discussed with the University Staff and the higher authorities at the University and at the Fisheries Directorate, and appears to have met^with agreement. - 69 - OBJECTIVES Immediate Objectives (i) to generate the academic infrastructure necessary to initiate Marine Science and Marine Resources studies at the University; (ii) to resume the B.Sc curricula with a major in Marine Science and Marine Resources, according to the proposed curriculum; (iii) to initiate the formation of national University staff by transferring and upgrading the junior (B.sc) and one senior (Licenciatura) fishery officers. Long-term Objectives (i) to provide the University with a body of qualified national staff for teaching and research in the major disciplines of Marine Science and Marine Resources ; (ii) to develop the capabilities required to re-activate the Marine Research Station at Inhaca as a training and research centre for Mozambique as well as for other countries in the sub-region; (iii) to provide the Institute of Fisheries Investigations with the qualified manpower required to investigate and monitor the fisheries, as well as the aquaculture projects, both inland and marine; (iv) to enable the country to develop a network of surveillance for its inland and marine environments, particularly the nature reserves, for the control of eventual pollution-induced alterations. STRATEGY AND PLAN OF WORK Two processes must be initiated as early as possible and be carried out simultaneously, the resumption of the teaching of basic science, discontinued in 1978, and the gradual development of a national staff to eventually take over from the expatriate staff at the University. Elaboration of a New B.Sc Curriculum . . The B. Ecology, discontinued in 1978 must be disregarded and a new 4-year B.Sc curriculum be elaborated and adopted instead. A curriculum is proposed as Annex 3 to this document, with optional orientation courses for the last year. The proposed curriculum was drafted by the staff of the Faculty of Biology in co-operation with the consultant. The education of the B.Sc graduates is conceived as a three-stage process: - 70 - (i) a transitory stage introducing the secondary school recruits to basic science; (ii) multidisciplinary courses in basic sciences, mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiology, ecology and genetics; and (iii) orientation courses in marine and fishery sciences. It is understood that not all basic science studies will be directed to Marine Sciences. After the second stage, alternative B.Sc courses, such as Wildlife Management, could be made available according to the country's needs. The training of the students will include laboratory work, field work, particularly at the Inhaca Station, and training at the Fisheries Institute. Graduate Studies At a later stage, B.Sc. graduates in Marine Sciences and Marine Resources, selected to become staff members at the University or senior fishery officers, will have to follow higher studies to further their training and qualify for a higher degree, either at E.M. University or abroad. The new B.Sc. students will not graduate and be ready for higher studies before 1988. Five B. Ecology, however, who graduated in 1981, are available as junior officers at the Fisheries Directorate. It is strongly recommended that they be sent back to the University to be upgraded in basic science and to apply for a Licenciatura, after presentation of a short thesis. A curriculum for this particular group of graduates is proposed as Annex 4 to this document. Complementary basic science courses and specialization courses in marine sciences are included. As the implementation of such a curriculum would require more expatriate staff, more funding and a longer delay, an alternative is suggested: After following an intensive course in the English language, the five B. Ecology graduates will be sent, either simultaneously or in two stages to the University of Dar Es Salaam. They would attend selected courses in Oceanography and Marine Biology for one year. On their return to E.M. University, they will each prepare a short Licenciatura thesis under joint supervision of staff members from Dar Es Salaam and E.M. University. Development of National Staff. The University of Eduardo Mondlane depends entirely on expatriate staff for the teaching of basic science. The University authorities have placed a number of secondary school graduates on study grants in foreign universities. Though 5 have been sent in 1981 for a B.Sc in Biology, and 5, 6 and 6 will follow for the same purpose in 1982, 1983 and 1984 respectively, the total shortage in marine science staff will last for long, unless immediate steps are taken. The new Department of Marine Sciences and Marine Resources should ultimately comprise one lecturer and at least one assistant in each of the following disciplines: - 71 - (i) chemical and physical oceanography; (ii) plankton, systematics and ecology; (iii) coastal-zone ecology; and (iv) fishery science. The following steps are recommended for the initial development of a national staff: (i) With the agreement of the Fisheries Directorate and in the interest of both the University and the Directorate, it is strongly advised that one of the senior fishery officers be transferred to the University and be sent abroad for a Ph.D in Marine Ecology. He would eventually assume the direction of the new Department. (ii) Two of the five B. Ecology graduates who will be sent back to the University for a Licenciatura should be permanently transferred to the University. Summary of Steps to be Taken (i) Elaboration of a 4 year curriculum and of the academic infrastructure, including teaching staff, for a B.Sç. in Biology with a major in Marine Sciences and Marine Resources, to start in 1984 according to the University plans (Annex 2). (ii) Elaboration of a 2-year "Licenciatura" post-graduate curriculum to be pursued by the 5 recent B. Ecology graduates. The proposed curriculum includes complementary courses to upgrade their standard in basic science. (Annex 3). (iii) Recruitment of 20 secondary school graduates to join the first year of the new B.Sc in 1984. (iv) Permanent transfer of a senior fishery officer to the University, to be placed in a foreign University for a Ph.D. (v) Permanent transfer to the University of two of the new Licenciatura graduates in 1985, subsequently to qualify for a Ph.D. (vi) Renovation and reactivation of the Marine Station at Inhaca Island. - 72 - ANNEX 1 MARINE SPECIES OF COMMERCIAL VALUE IN MOZAMBIQUE Fish: Cachucho (Polysteganus coeruleopunctatus) Garoupa (Epinephelus spp., Cephalopholis spp.) Ladrao (Lethrinus nebulosus) Marreco (Chrysoblephus puniceus) Robalo (Cheimerius aufar) Serra (Scomberomorus commerson) Vermelho (Chrysoblephus spp., Lutianus spp.) Agulha (Hemiramphus far) Anchova (Pamatomus saltator) Atum (Euthynnus spp., Germo albacora) Babi ou Safl (Siganus spp.) Bacalhau (Rachycentron canadus) Besso (Cheillo inermls) Cacao (Mustelus spp.) Cangala (Tachysurus feliceps) Carapau (Caranx spp. Decapterus spp.) Cávala (Rastrelliger spp.) Chareu (Caranx spp. Trachinotus spp.) Corvina (Otolithes ruber) Dourada (Rhabdosargus spp.) Douradinha (Crenidens crenidens, Garres spp.) Ladrao (Lethrinus spp.) Linguado (Cynoglossus spp.) Machope (Chorinemus toi) Macujana (Johnis belengeri, Scigema dussumiezi) Magumbo (Macrura kelee) Oscar (Thrissocles spp) Papagalo (Leptoscarus spp., Callyodon Guttatus) Patana (Leiognathus equula, Drepane punctata, Gazza minuta) Peixe anjo (Apolectus niger) Peixe espada (Chirocentrus dorab, Trichiurus lepturus) - 73 - annex 1, cont'd/... Pescada bicuda (Sphyraena spp.,) Pescadinha (Sillago sihama) Raia (Dasyatis spp.,) Roncador e Pedrn (Pomadasys spp.) Salfo . (Pisodonophis cancrivorus) Salmonete (Upeneus spp., Pseudupeneus spp.) Sapateiro (Plathcephalus spp) Sardinha (Pellona ditchela, Harengula spp. semisulcatos) Solha (Pseudorombus arsis, Bothus pantherinus, Psettodes erumei) S. Pedro (Lutianus spp.) Tainha (Liza macrolepis, Mugil cephalus, Ellochelon vaigiensis) Tubarao (Rhizoprionodon actus, Carcharinus spp.) Zebra (Pelâtes quadrilineatus, Therapon Jarbua) Shrimps : Camarao branco (Penaeus indicus) Camarao encarnado (Metapenaeus monoceros). Camarao tigre (Penaeus japonicus, Penaeus semiculcatus) Camarao "lagostim" (Fenaeus monodon) Camarao branco (Metapenaeus stebbingi) Camarao de profundidade (Hymenopenaeus tiarthrus) Cray-fish: Lagosta da rocha (Panulirus homarus, Panulirus ornatus, Panulirus versicolor, Panulirus longipes) Lagosta de profundidade (Panulirus gilchristi) Lagostin (Nephrops andamanicus) Crabs : Caranguejo do mahgal (Scyllat serrata) Caranguejo azul (Portunus pelagicus) Mossusca (Bivalves, Cephalop.) Ameijoa (Venus meretrix, Pitaria kocki) Mexilhao da rocha (Perna perna) - 74 - annex 1, cont'd/... Mexilhao do lodo (Modiolus philippinarum) Ostra da rocha (Crassostraea cucullata) Ostra do lodo (Pinctata capensis) Choco (Sepia spp.) Lula (Loligo spp., Ommastostreches spp.) Polvo (Octupus vulgaris, Ebdona cirrosa). - 75 - ANNEX 2 FOUR YEAR CURRICULUM FOR A B.Sc. IN BIOLOGY Secondary School Graduates One year Introduction to Basic Science Mathematics, Physics, General Chemistry, General Biology, English Language Two years Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. Zoology, Embryology, Physiology. Botany. Cryptogams. Flowering Plants. General Ecology. Genetics. English Language. One year (optional) Marine Sciences. Wild-life Management. Phytopathology. Nutrition. Zoology. Botany. B. Biology Advanced Studies and Research Project Licenciatura - 76 - ANNEX 3 PROPOSED CURRICULUM FOR MARINE SCIENCES. Duration IVth YEAR, B. BIOLOGY :one year. I. Introduction to physical and chemical oceanography, salinity, temperature and density; chemistry of sea water; tides and currents; nutrient salts and oxygen; regional oceanography. II. Phytoplankton and Zooplankton; classification; phytoplankton productivity; Zooplankton production; ecology; examples from life cycles. III. Coastal zone ecosystems of Mozambique; lagoons and estuaries; coral reefs; mangroves; soft and hard-bottom communities; field work at Inhaca island. IV. Ichthyology; classification; fish biology - 77 - ANNEX 4 PROPOSED COMPLEMENTARY COURSES FOR THE JUNIOR FISHERY OFFICERS (1979 GRADUATES) AS A PRE-REQUISITE FOR A LICENCIATURA. Duration I. :2 years. Basic Science Statistics Chemistry: Fundamentals of analytical chemistry: volumetric, gravimetric and spectrophotometric analysis. Fundamentals of organic chemistry. Physics: Acoustics, magnetism, electricity. Zoology: Aquatic protozoa and invertebrates; morphology, life-history, classification. Fish biology and ichthyology. Marine mammals Botany: Cryptogams, bacteria, fungi, algae, Aquatic Phanerogam. Fundamentals of Ecology. II Marine Sciences Marine Chemistry Hydrography; Regional oceanography; Indian Ocean and Mozambique Channel. Ecology of the pelagic system; phytoplankton, Zooplankton. Ecology of the coastal systems: lagoons and estuaries, mangroves coral reefs; examples from Mozambican waters. Fishery management. III English Language - 78 - ITINERARY Wednesday 5 May Arrival in Maputo, Mozambique Briefing by Mr. Carlos Machili, General Secretary, National Commission for Unesco. Thursday 6 May UNDP Office. Meeting with Mr. Antunio Hein, Resident Representative. The consultant is briefed on the general setting, the problems and the priorities of the country. Meeting with Mrs Itta Tedesse, Programme Officer. The consultant is briefed on the FAO Project "Marine Fisheries Training and Development" now starting on its second phase and on earlier FAO consultant missions and reports on fisheries. Visit to the Fisheries Directorate. Meeting with Mr. Sergio Basulto, National Director of Fisheries, Mr. A. Silva in charge of international co-operation at the Secretariat of State for Fisheries, and Mr. P. Contreras, FAO Biologist at the Institute for Fisheries Development. The consultant briefs the meeting on the objectives of his mission and on the statistical data and documentation requested to complete his mission. The consultant is briefed by Mr. Basulto on the joint project between the Government and FAO for the improvement of artisanal fisheries and on the anticipated projects for stock assessment in lakes Nyassa and Cabora Bassa. Friday 7 May Eduardo Mondlane University, Faculty of Biology. Meeting with the Director of the Faculty, Mr Daniel de Sousa and the staff, Mrs Pauline Depelchin, Mr Philip Hiemstra, Hans Feijen, Jan de Koning, Danubio Nhahtumbo. The consultant is briefed by the Director on the general policy of the University, the priorities dictated by the shortage in secondary school graduates. Studies in Biology have been discontinued, in favour of Veterinary and Agronomy and the training of teachers. The studies in Biology are to be resumed in 1984. Advice is needed for the elaboration of a new curriculum. The consultant is shown the premises of the Faculty, the teaching and research laboratories, the library and the museum. Monday 10 - Tuesday 11 May. Inhaca Island. The consultant is shown the various ecological sites on the island and the coastal zone by Mrs P. Depelchin and P. Heimstra. The premises of the Inhaca Marine Research Station are visited and inventoried in detail, including the housing facilities, the laboratories, the teaching and research equipment, the small library, the reference collection. The needs in equipment and building repairs are identified and listed in co-operation with Mrs Depelchin and Mr Hiemstra. - 79 - Wednesday 12 May Visit to the library of the "Institute of Scientific Research" and interview with the Director, Mrs Wanda Amaral. Meeting with Mrs Lilia Brinca, Deputy Director, Institute of Fisheries Investigations. Thursday 13 May Office of the Food and Agricultural Organization. Interview with Mr Gonzalez de Moye, FAO representative, and Mr. Frank Haupt, associate programme officer. The current FAO fishery projects are reviewed. National Institute for Water Resources. The consultant meets with Eng. L. Kranendonk, senior hydrologist upon his request; the consultant is handed a complete set of data on the outflow of the main rivers for the last two decades. Friday 14 May Meeting with the Academic Director of Eduardo Mondlane University, Dr. Raposo Beirero. The consultant is informed in detail of the post-independence policy of the Government on education, of the present organization of the University and its prospects for the near future. The courses in Biology and Ecology are to be resumed in 1984, but there is need for the reformulation of the curricula. The Marine Research Station at Inhaca could provide a training center for the studies on ecology. Twenty students are already abroad on study missions in biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics, and a similar number will be sent every year until 1984. The consultant explains his conception of the measures to be taken to develop marine sciences and marine resources at the University. His views are met with full approval. Visit to the library of the Institute of Fisheries Investigations. The consultant meets the librarians, Mrs W. Einarssen and Lydia Pataliou, and is shown the library. Saturday 15 May Second visit to the library of the Institute of Fisheries Investigations. The consultant takes this opportunity to look at some reports and documents pertaining to the object of his mission. Monday 17 May Meeting with Mr Rui Silva, Fishery Biologist, Institute of Fisheries Investigations, and Mr Carlos Machili, Unesco National Commission. The consultant is briefed on the structure of the Institute and its manpower. The ecology of the coastal zone of Mozambique is briefly reviewed and the effects of the expected alterations discussed, particularly in relation to the shrimp fisheries. Two main surveys have been carried out recently at two years interval. The mangroves along the Zambezi delta provide a nursery ground for young shrimps. A survey of this important ecosystem is needed, both by satellite pictures and field work. The suggestions put forward by the consultant to up-grade the level of the fisheries staff and to train new staff are discussed. Second meeting with the staff of the Faculty of Biology. - 80 - Discussion of the curricula for biology and marine sciences at both under- and post-graduate levels. Monday 24 May Meeting at the Fisheries Directorate with Mr Basulto, Mrs Lydia Po, Mr R. Silva and Mr C. Machili. The consultant is briefed on the organization of the Directorate, its plans for the near future and its needs in personnel. Reliable statistics on the total fish catch and the catch per unit fishing effort requested by the consultant are still unavailable. Estimates however are available. Monday 24 May Institute of Agronomic Research. Interview with Mrs Telma Faria, Director. The consultant is briefed on the structure and activities of the Institute. Documentation on the predamming conditions along the Zambezi river valley and delta and on the mangroves is requested by the consultant. Tuesday 25 May Visit to the Fish-Culture Station of Umbeluzi with Mrs Lydia Po and Mr F. Ribeiro. Wednesday 26 - Thursday 27 May Trip to the town of Beira. Visit of the laboratories and offices of the "Delegation of the Institute of Fisheries Investigations" with Mrs Christina Silva, Chief, and Mr C. Machili, Unesco National Commission. The consultant is also shown the fishing harbour and the mangrove area. Friday 28 May Meeting at the Rector's office, Eduardo Mondlane University, with attendance of Mrs Lydia Po, Mr Basulto, Mr C. Machili and Mr R. Silva. Saturday 29 May Visit to the library of the Institute of Agromonic Research Saturday 29 May Afternoon departure from Maputo. - 81 - BIBLIOGRAPHY I. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY ANON. (1960) Travaux océanographiques de l'aviso "Commandant Robert Giraud" dans l'Océan Indien en 1960. Cah Ocëanogr., 12 (9): 621. ANON (1963) Informations. Quatrième campagne océanographique du "Commandant Robert Giraud". Cah Ocëanogr., 15 (5): 287-8 ANON. (1965) Resultados das observaçoes oceanógraficas no canal de Moçambique. Cruzeiro AL 1/64: Abril - Maio 1964. Publ. Inst. Hidrogr., 1^ , Ministerio da Marinha, Lisboa: 73 pp. ANON. (1967) Resultados das observaçoes oceanógraficas no canal de Moçambique. Cruzerio AL 2/64: Setembro - Outubro 1964. Publ. Inst. Hidr. , _3_ , Ministerio da Marinha, Lisboa: 107 pp. ANON (1973a) Cooperaçâo na Expediçao Internacional ao Océano Indico: resultados das observaçoes oceanógraficas no canal de Moçambique. Cruzerio AL 3/65: Abril - Maio 1965. Publ. Inst. Hidr., ]_, Ministerio da Marinha, Lisboa: 57 pp. ANON. (1973b) Resultados das observaçoes oceanógraficas no canal de Moçambique. Cruzerio AL 4/66: Julho 1966. Publ. Inst. Hidr., 8^, Ministerio da Marinha, Lisboa: 57 pp. ANON. (1978) Relatório preliminar da If. parte da Expediçâ'o Conjunta Moçambicano- Soviética de Investigaçab Científica no Dominio das Pescas realizada a bordo do STRM "Myslitel" de Agosts a Novembro de 1978 Serviço de Investigaçoes Pesquiras, Maputo/ 27 pp. ANON. (1979) Relatório preliminar da 2a parte da Expediçao Conjunta Moçambicano - Soviética de Investigaçao Científica no Dominio das Pescas realizada a bordo do STRM "Nikolay Reshetnyak" de Novembro de 1978 a Marco de 1979. Serviço de Investigaçoes Pesqueiras, Maputo: 12 pp. ANON (1981) Relatório preliminar da 3 a parte da Expediçao Conjunta MoçambicanoSoviética de Investigaçab Científica no Dominio das Pescas realizada a bordo do SRTM "Nikolay Reshetnyak" de Maio a Agosto de 1979. Instituto de Desenvolvimento Pesqueiro, Maputo, (in press). ANON. (1981) Relatório do cruzeiro realizado no Banco de Sofala pelo arrastao camaroneiro "Muleve" em Julho - Agosto de 1979. Instituto de Desenvolvimento Pesqueiro, Maputo, (in press). This bibliography has been compiled from various sources. It is by no means exhaustive and many of the references are incomplete. - 82 - BUDNICHENKO, V.A. LEDNICHENKO, V.A. MIROSHNIKOV, V.S., PORTSEV, P.I. and SAVICH, M.S. (1977). Results obtained from the "Aellta" exploratory surveys undertaken in the shelf and open waters continuous to the coast of the People's Republic of Mozambique CMay 1976 through August 1977). AzcherNIRO, Kerch. CITEAU, J., PITON, B. et MAGNIER (1973). 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