Download Prepositions, Conjunctions

Lecture 8
English 3318: Studies in English Grammar
Structure-class Words
Prepositions and Conjunctions
Dr. Svetlana Nuernberg
Objectives
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Distinguish among prepositions, adverbs and verb
particles
Know the purpose and punctuation of the types of
conjunctions
Prepositions
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Prepositions are reliable signals that a noun is
coming
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occur before (in pre-position to) a noun phrase (noun
and its modifiers if any)
create prepositional phrases (PrepP) - together with a
noun phrase
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in the attic , up the path, after lunch, since Easter, below that
street sign, for a very good reason
noun phrase functions as the object of the preposition
Prepositions connect their noun phrase objects to
some other word or phrase in a sentence
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add information to the one provided by adverbs
add descriptive information supplied by adjectives
Prepositional Phrases
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If function as adverbs – called adverbial modifiers
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preposition serves as a link to the verb that the
prepositional phrase modifies
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Our visitors [strolled] along the river (place)
The game [starts] after the awards presentation (time)
Sandra [scales] steep cliffs without fear (manner)
If function as adjectives – called adjectival
modifiers
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prepositional phrases modify a noun or noun phrase
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Mrs. Carter owns [the house] with the tile roof
[The class] after lunch is the most difficult
Diagrams and Trees
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Prepositional phrases are diagrammed so that
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the preposition appears on a line slanting downward
from the word the phrase modifies
the object of the preposition appears on a horizontal
line following it
modifiers of the object appear on slanted lines below,
in the position observed earlier on determiners
voice of the people
hurried to the store
voice
hurried
of
to
people
the
store
the
Prepositions vs Adverbs
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Sometimes a word can be a preposition in one
context and an adverb in another
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They were not supposed to be playing with Frisbees
inside the dorm
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House rules did not allow playing with Frisbees inside
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(adverb of place) – no noun follow them
The little boy fell down the stairs
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(preposition) - the dorm is an object of inside
(preposition) – the stairs is an object of down
The little boy fell down
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(adverb of space)
Prepositions vs Verb Particles I
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Many of the forms that serve both as adverbs and
as prepositions also function as verb particles
1. some very common verbs are created by combining a
verb with a verb particle – phrasal verbs (look up –
“search for in a dictionary”, turn in – “go to bed” )
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Oscar looked up the word
At midnight we turned in
however prepositional phrase (consisting of the
preposition up followed by its object - the road) telling
where Oscar looked:
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Oscar looked up the road
Prepositions vs Verb Particles II
2. Another test can distinguish a verb particle from a
preposition
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if the phrasal verb is transitive – that is, followed by an
object – the particle can usually be moved to a position
following the object
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Oscar looked up the word
Oscar looked the word up
in contrast, a preposition can never be moved to a
position after its object
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Oscar looked up the road
*Oscar looked the road up
Verb Particles vs Adverbs I
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Verb particles are often identical to adverbs – how
to differentiate between a particle and an adverb
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adverbs are often optional – can be omitted without
changing the meaning of the verb
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At the entrance to the parking lot, we should turn in.
At the entrance to the parking lot, we should turn
particles are not optional and thus cannot be omitted
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At midnight, we should turn in.
*At midnight, we should turn.
Verb Particles vs Adverbs II
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How to differentiate between a particle and an
adverb
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as modifiers, adverbs usually add information
regarding time, place or manner – “in”can be replaced
by another modifier of direction - “left”
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At the entrance to the parking lot , we should turn left
particles do not add information and cannot be
replaced by any modifiers
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*At the midnight we should turn left
Verb Particles vs Adverbs III
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How to differentiate between a particle and an
adverb
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The sentence containing in as an adverbial modifier of
direction or place can answer a question beginning
with where
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At the entrance to the parking lot, where should we turn?
- We should turn in.
The sentence containing particle cannot
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*At midnight, where should we turn?
- We should turn in.
Conjunctions
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The structure class of conjunctions includes two
types: coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions together with conjunctive adverbs
Are used to connect words, phrases and sentences
– to join grammatical structures
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within the sentence we use simple coordinating and
correlative conjunctions
for joining sentences we use subordinating
conjunctions (subordinators) and conjunctive adverbs
Coordinating Conjunctions
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Coordinators join grammatical structures of
similar form, transforming them into a single
grammatical unit
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the prototypical coordinating conjunction is and
the other common members are but, or, yet, nor, for, so
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John and Mary
very tasty but rather fattening
washed by the rain and dried by the sun
after he graduated from college yet before he got a job
when single words or phrases are joined it is a phrase
when two sentences are joined – a compound sentence
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Either someone is going to start cooking, or we will have to
go out for dinner.
Correlative Conjunctions
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Are coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but)
paired with other words that extend the meaning of
the first: both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not
only...but also
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connect syntactic units that
have the same grammatical form: a word to word, a
phrase to phrase, a clause to clause
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both students and faculty
not only composes the music but also writes the lyric
Either you know the answer or you don't
for, yet, nor, unless accompanied by neither – connect
only sentences
“both ...and” doesn't join complete sentences but can
join any other structures that occur within sentences
Conjunctive Adverbs I
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Are on the periphery of both conjunctions and
adverbs
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like conjunctions connect and signal relationships
between two sentences
like adverbs in the kind of meaning they express
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contrast: however, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on
the other hand, still, having said that
addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover
cause and effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently,
hence, so, therefore, thus
example or restatement: for example, that is
time: afterward(s), earlier, finally, in the meantime, later,
meanwhile, then
Conjunctive Adverbs II
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Join sentences to form coordinate structures with
adverbial emphasis
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differ from other conjunctions in that, like many other
adverbials, they tend to be movable within their clause;
they need not introduce the clause
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My tax accountant is not cheap; however, the amount of tax
she saves me is far greater than her fee.
My tax accountant is not cheap; the amount of tax she saves
me, however, is far greater than her fee.
Subordinating Conjunctions
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Create complex sentences by joining
grammatically unequal elements : a subordinate
(dependent) clause to a main clause (independent)
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subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence
main clause is complete on its own – can stand alone
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We decided to walk because we missed the last bus.
Because we missed the last bus, we decided to walk.
time: when, where, after, as, before, once since, till
manner: as, as if, as though, like
contrast: opposition: although, whereas, while
cause & effect: because, in that, now that, since
condition: if, in case, unless, provided (that)
purpose: so that, in order that
comparison: as...as, more than, less than, than
Subordinating Conjunctions
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Introduce only the dependent clause
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Subordinate clause can come between the subject
and the predicate – surrounded by commas
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We decided to walk, for we missed the last bus.
The City Council members, before they adjourned their
meeting, voted to give a special award to the recycling
center.
Phrasal subordinators introduce
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two-part construction, one of which is the main clause
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The more I go on fad diets, the more weight I seem to add.
occur in the clause of comparison
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There were more people at the party than we expected.