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Lecture 8 English 3318: Studies in English Grammar Structure-class Words Prepositions and Conjunctions Dr. Svetlana Nuernberg Objectives ● ● Distinguish among prepositions, adverbs and verb particles Know the purpose and punctuation of the types of conjunctions Prepositions ● Prepositions are reliable signals that a noun is coming – – occur before (in pre-position to) a noun phrase (noun and its modifiers if any) create prepositional phrases (PrepP) - together with a noun phrase ● – ● in the attic , up the path, after lunch, since Easter, below that street sign, for a very good reason noun phrase functions as the object of the preposition Prepositions connect their noun phrase objects to some other word or phrase in a sentence – – add information to the one provided by adverbs add descriptive information supplied by adjectives Prepositional Phrases ● If function as adverbs – called adverbial modifiers – preposition serves as a link to the verb that the prepositional phrase modifies ● ● ● ● Our visitors [strolled] along the river (place) The game [starts] after the awards presentation (time) Sandra [scales] steep cliffs without fear (manner) If function as adjectives – called adjectival modifiers – prepositional phrases modify a noun or noun phrase ● ● Mrs. Carter owns [the house] with the tile roof [The class] after lunch is the most difficult Diagrams and Trees ● Prepositional phrases are diagrammed so that – – – – the preposition appears on a line slanting downward from the word the phrase modifies the object of the preposition appears on a horizontal line following it modifiers of the object appear on slanted lines below, in the position observed earlier on determiners voice of the people hurried to the store voice hurried of to people the store the Prepositions vs Adverbs ● Sometimes a word can be a preposition in one context and an adverb in another – They were not supposed to be playing with Frisbees inside the dorm ● – House rules did not allow playing with Frisbees inside ● – (adverb of place) – no noun follow them The little boy fell down the stairs ● – (preposition) - the dorm is an object of inside (preposition) – the stairs is an object of down The little boy fell down ● (adverb of space) Prepositions vs Verb Particles I ● Many of the forms that serve both as adverbs and as prepositions also function as verb particles 1. some very common verbs are created by combining a verb with a verb particle – phrasal verbs (look up – “search for in a dictionary”, turn in – “go to bed” ) ● ● – Oscar looked up the word At midnight we turned in however prepositional phrase (consisting of the preposition up followed by its object - the road) telling where Oscar looked: ● Oscar looked up the road Prepositions vs Verb Particles II 2. Another test can distinguish a verb particle from a preposition – if the phrasal verb is transitive – that is, followed by an object – the particle can usually be moved to a position following the object ● ● – Oscar looked up the word Oscar looked the word up in contrast, a preposition can never be moved to a position after its object ● ● Oscar looked up the road *Oscar looked the road up Verb Particles vs Adverbs I ● Verb particles are often identical to adverbs – how to differentiate between a particle and an adverb – adverbs are often optional – can be omitted without changing the meaning of the verb ● ● – At the entrance to the parking lot, we should turn in. At the entrance to the parking lot, we should turn particles are not optional and thus cannot be omitted ● ● At midnight, we should turn in. *At midnight, we should turn. Verb Particles vs Adverbs II ● How to differentiate between a particle and an adverb – as modifiers, adverbs usually add information regarding time, place or manner – “in”can be replaced by another modifier of direction - “left” ● – At the entrance to the parking lot , we should turn left particles do not add information and cannot be replaced by any modifiers ● *At the midnight we should turn left Verb Particles vs Adverbs III ● How to differentiate between a particle and an adverb – The sentence containing in as an adverbial modifier of direction or place can answer a question beginning with where ● ● – At the entrance to the parking lot, where should we turn? - We should turn in. The sentence containing particle cannot ● ● *At midnight, where should we turn? - We should turn in. Conjunctions ● ● The structure class of conjunctions includes two types: coordinating and subordinating conjunctions together with conjunctive adverbs Are used to connect words, phrases and sentences – to join grammatical structures – – within the sentence we use simple coordinating and correlative conjunctions for joining sentences we use subordinating conjunctions (subordinators) and conjunctive adverbs Coordinating Conjunctions ● Coordinators join grammatical structures of similar form, transforming them into a single grammatical unit – – the prototypical coordinating conjunction is and the other common members are but, or, yet, nor, for, so ● ● ● ● – – John and Mary very tasty but rather fattening washed by the rain and dried by the sun after he graduated from college yet before he got a job when single words or phrases are joined it is a phrase when two sentences are joined – a compound sentence ● Either someone is going to start cooking, or we will have to go out for dinner. Correlative Conjunctions ● Are coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but) paired with other words that extend the meaning of the first: both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also – – connect syntactic units that have the same grammatical form: a word to word, a phrase to phrase, a clause to clause ● ● ● – – both students and faculty not only composes the music but also writes the lyric Either you know the answer or you don't for, yet, nor, unless accompanied by neither – connect only sentences “both ...and” doesn't join complete sentences but can join any other structures that occur within sentences Conjunctive Adverbs I ● Are on the periphery of both conjunctions and adverbs – – like conjunctions connect and signal relationships between two sentences like adverbs in the kind of meaning they express ● ● ● ● ● contrast: however, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, having said that addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover cause and effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus example or restatement: for example, that is time: afterward(s), earlier, finally, in the meantime, later, meanwhile, then Conjunctive Adverbs II ● Join sentences to form coordinate structures with adverbial emphasis – differ from other conjunctions in that, like many other adverbials, they tend to be movable within their clause; they need not introduce the clause ● ● My tax accountant is not cheap; however, the amount of tax she saves me is far greater than her fee. My tax accountant is not cheap; the amount of tax she saves me, however, is far greater than her fee. Subordinating Conjunctions ● Create complex sentences by joining grammatically unequal elements : a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main clause (independent) – – subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence main clause is complete on its own – can stand alone ● ● – – – – – – – We decided to walk because we missed the last bus. Because we missed the last bus, we decided to walk. time: when, where, after, as, before, once since, till manner: as, as if, as though, like contrast: opposition: although, whereas, while cause & effect: because, in that, now that, since condition: if, in case, unless, provided (that) purpose: so that, in order that comparison: as...as, more than, less than, than Subordinating Conjunctions ● Introduce only the dependent clause – ● Subordinate clause can come between the subject and the predicate – surrounded by commas – ● We decided to walk, for we missed the last bus. The City Council members, before they adjourned their meeting, voted to give a special award to the recycling center. Phrasal subordinators introduce – two-part construction, one of which is the main clause ● – The more I go on fad diets, the more weight I seem to add. occur in the clause of comparison ● There were more people at the party than we expected.