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USE OF ANIMAL IMAGERY IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS by KIMBERLY NICOLE MOYERS, B.A. A THESIS IN MASS COMMUNICATIONS Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved May, 2001 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee, Dr. Keith Johnson, Dr. Sabrina Neeley, and Dr. Roger Saathofif, for their help and support in the achievement of the completion of this thesis. I am especially grateful to my parents, Tom and Aletha Moyers, for their financial and moral support throughout my undergraduate and graduate degrees at Texas Tech University. u TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES iv CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 5 III. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES 21 IV. METHODOLOGY 26 V. RESULTS 30 VI. DISCUSSION 40 REFERENCES 46 APPENDICES A. CODINGSHEET 49 B. CODING SHEET DEFINITIONS 51 ui LIST OF TABLES 1. Frequency of Variables 35 2. Animal Use by Product Type 36 3. Animal Use by Product Type (no mixed category) 37 4. Product Type by Animal Portrayed 38 5. Product Type by Kleppner's Advertising Spiral 39 IV CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Advertising is a key method with which businesses communicate to their target audiences (Rook, 1999). An advertisement's purpose is to persuade audiences to purchase products, by whatever means. Advertisers began using artwork with text as soon as print technology could produce that type of ad. Pictures make a product visual and memorable to audiences. Making the product stick in the mind of the consumer, so the shopper will purchase the product and bring the company business, is the purpose of advertising (Sivulka, 1998). If ads are not memorable, the company advertising its product is jeopardizing all the money put into the production and distribution of the advertisements (Rook. 1999). One path taken is to include animals in the ads. If the ad is unique, and the animal is one consumers remember and like, the company will accomplish its goal of reaching its audience. Sivulka (1998) states that animals have been used in advertisements since the beginning of advertising. One of the first advertising geniuses, P.T. Bamurru used everything he could think of to promote his sideshows and circuses. He used wild headlines, most of them false, with original ways to promote his circuses. Jumbo the Elephant, who attracted people into the shows, was one of the first animals used in advertising. Another animal used in advertising very early was Nipper, a fox terrier who was drawn with a cocked head and captivating look upon his face staring into a gramophone. 1 This became the symbol for RCA in 1929, when it bought out the Victor Talking Machine Company. Today Nipper still appears in advertisements for RCA along with his son. Chipper (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Nipper became a very memorable icon and the company became successful by consumers recognizing RCA products over similar brands. RCA's products are still brought to mind when the fox terriers appear. Animals are sometimes used as visual metaphors, symbolic of the role the animal played in a society (Sax, 1990). Occasionally, when there is nothing new to say about the product and the advertisers just want to get the viewer's attention, they use animals in their ads. Animals deliver a specific message without using too many words, and without the animal, the ad just does not work as well in getting the point across to the consumer (Spears, Mowen, «& Chakraborty, 1996). There are several advertisements featuring animals which appear in magazines. These include Raid Bug for Raid insecticide in the 1980s, and Spuds MacKenzie for Bud Light Beer in 1989. Magazines took a different outlook on advertising. At first, they depended on subscribers to fiind the magazines. The subscribers looked upon ads as vulgar and thought that the majority of the advertising was dishonest. For the most part, that was true. Magazines did not use advertisements until the 1870s (Sivulka, 1998). Still, ads were put at thefi^ontand back of the magazine so they would not be confused with feature articles. Magazines soon became the place where companies wanted to advertise products because this was the only national medium (Sivulka, 1998). Magazines soon leamed that the earnings gained fi'om advertising could produce more money than subscription revenues (Sivulka, 1998). Many advertisements incorporated pictures of people and animals as soon as printing press technology progressed. 9 Analyzing magazine ads in which animals appear has helped in understanding when and how animals were used in promotion of products or services. Looking at which type of product was placed with a particular animal was also been examined. The meaning and symbols that animals portray cast a positive or negative impression of the product (Rook, 1999). Making a negative image animal into a lovable one was key if the product using such an animal was to succeed (Rook, 1999). Kellogg's Tony the Tiger was an example of a feared animal becoming a likable, memorable one with the use of cartooning the animal. This also may be accomplished with computer graphics and using anthropomorphism (giving animals human characteristics). The findings fi'om this study will allow companies to pick an appropriate animal for their advertisements by looking at what others have done before. The product they are trying to sell might be better advertised if they do not use animals similar to their competitors. An example of this is Elsie the Cow, for Borden dairy products, and Nestle's Cow in Germany, for Nestle's Quik chocolate drink mix (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Nestle did not use a cow in America, but changed to a Nestle Rabbit. At this time several other milk products already used the cow as their symbol. However, certain animals, wild animals for example, might be associated with a particular category of products, in which case the company might want to use a wild animal to have more recognition fi'om the consumers. Marlboro cigarettes use wild horses and Camel cigarettes did use Joe Camel although Joe Camel is no longer allowed to be used in ads due to the Master Settlement Agreement in 1997 regarding Joe Camel appealing to children (the character only appears as a Camel cigarettes icon). RJ Reynolds agreed not to use cartoon characters in advertising or in promoting Camel cigarettes (Reuter. 1997). 3 This study used content analysis to look at many advertisements featuring animals. Looking at this area of advertising assists in discovery of the use of animals for products or services advertised in magazines. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW "There is an universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like themselves... We find human faces in the moon, armies in the clouds." - David Hume, The Natural History of Religion (Mitchell, Thompson, and Miles, 1997, p. 50) Definitions This study looked at advertising. Arens (1996) defines advertising as "... the nonpersonal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature, about products (goods and services) or ideas by identified sponsors though various media" (p. 6). Anthropomorphism was also an aspect of research in this study. Mitchell, Thompson, and Miles (1997) stated ... anthropomorphism is best defined as in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary (1977): the 'attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman things or events." I further suggest that by definition it should be minimized although by nature it cannot be eliminated; and that it occurs as one resuh of a perceptual strategy that is both involuntary and necessary, (p. 51) Durable and service products are product categories by which the advertisements were examined. Webster's II New College Dictionary (1995) stated, "durable... Capable of withstanding wear or decay" (p. 351) and "Service... work done for others as an occupation or business" (p. 1010). Creation of Print Advertising Johannes Gutenberg changed the world, including advertising, with his invention of the printing press in Germany in the 1440s (Arens, 1996). The printing press allowed for interchangeable letters and a way to produce mass quantities of papers at a low cost. Before the printing press, only monks and scholars could read and write and original copies were made by hand. The new technology made it possible for the first mass media to be established in the form of posters, handbills and signs (Arens, 1996). The first EngUsh newspaper was the Weekly Newes of London in 1622 (Russell and Lane, 1993). The first EngUsh print ad was a handbill in 1472 which was tacked to a church door in London stating a prayer book was for sale (Arens, 1996). Not until 200 years later did an ad appear in a newspaper stating a reward for stolen horses (Russell & Lane. 1993). Advertisements for consumer products soon followed. The Boston Newsletter^ an American colonies' publication, began carrying ads in 1704 (Arens, 1996). One of the first ads was a reward for the capture of a thief and the retum of several items of men's apparel (Russell & Lane, 1993). Benjamin Franklin became the innovator of advertising art and various sizing of type fonts in 1726. Franklin used white space and larger headlines to make the ads more memorable (Arens, 1996). Thirty newspapers were in publication when the United States was formed. Their ads consisted mostly of what is known today as classified or local ads (Russell & Lane, 1993). Advertising came to be known as an occupation in the mid-1800s. The increase of nationally-distributed goods created the need for a wider area of sales promotions. From this arose the need for advertisements and people to design and place them in publications. There soon were numerous promotional tasks over the larger geographical region. Newspapers began to pay agents to sell the space available for advertisements. This gave birth to what we know now as an advertising agency (Sivulka, 1998). Magazines Benjamin Franklin tried to introduce America to his version of the magazine in 1741. His magazines included extracts fi'om books, essays and verse. The magazines were in publication for six months. What we know as magazines today came into popularity during the later part of the nineteenth century (Russell & Lane, 1993). Illiteracy was at an all-time low at 10 percent in the 1900s. Railroads were very efficient and carried mail across the country as no other transportation had before. Congress made a second-class postage stamp for publications in 1879. The Hoe highspeed rotary press, the halftone method of printing photographs, and colored artwork now all came into play. All of these factors helped boost the magazine's popularity (Russell and Lane, 1993). Fletcher Harper, publisher oi Harper's Monthly, thought advertising would "desecrate literature with the announcements of tradespeople,"" so he placed all the ads in the back of his upper middle class magazine (Russell & Lane, 1993). The 10-cent magazine was here to stay by the 1890s. The magazines included popular storiesfi-omwriters such as Rudyard Kipling, H.G. Wells and Mark Twain. The Ladies' Home Journal reached a million circulation by 1902, with competitors not far behind. The number of advertisements appearing in magazines then is comparable to today's magazines. Harper's had 75 pages of ads; Cosmopolitan. 103 pages; McClure 'v. 120 pages (approximately) in every issue (Russell & Lane, 1993). Today, a sample of a few magazines are: Better Homes and Gardens, 125; Reader's Digest. 75: and Ladies Home Journal at 100 pages (Russell and Lane, 1993). These magazines had between 250 to 400 pages. Therefore, a fourth to a half of the magazine pages were ads. Animal Svmbolism Animals have always had an underlying symbolic meaning in their use in literature (Sax 1992). Animal anecdotes do not have a single point of origin, but have been around since fairy tales began. Some of the most beloved ones are included in the fables of Aesop. Sax (1992) stated, "Aesop was a half-legendary figure who is said to have lived on the island of Samos in the sbcth century B.C., mentioned by Herodotus. Plato, Aristophanes and others. According to tradition, he was a slave who was granted hisfi-eedomfor his skill in telling stories'" (p. 4). The animals featured in these stories were original because they had minds like those of humans, thus making the animals witty and attractive to their audience. Giving animals such human characteristics is termed anthropomorphism (Mitchell, Thompson, & Miles, 1997). Sax (1992) recognized these animals have an underlying meaning within their story-morals. These stories are told using animals instead of humans to make them more memorable. Animals depict human society by obtaining the same characteristics as certain groups of people. Like humans, animals too are also divided into different ranks, temperament and profession. People still perceive animals to have the characteristics given them by storytellers. This has been the cycle of animal use in stories for centuries. 8 Sax (1992) affirmed, "The dog was by far the favorite domestic animal in America until, in the latter twentieth century, it has been overtaken by the cat in popularity" (p. 127). The dog has always been thought of as a loyal companion. Among the best-known stories of dogs and their masters is that of the Welsh prince Llewelljn and his faithful dog Gellert. When Llewellyn retumed home to find his baby son missing and Gellert covered in blood, Llewellyn kills his dog, only to then hear the sounds of his babyfi-ombehind the cradle. He then discovers the body of a wolf, and realizes that his faithful dog had protected his baby. Cats were often associated with witches in the late Middle Ages. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have looked upon cats as incompatible with humans. This was because cats seem to have an inner life unreachable by humans (Sax, 1992). Mercatante (1974) stated, "...from the earliest times cats have always been associated with women" (p. 48). Stories from Irish folklore, Hindu, ancient Egypt, Arab. Chinese and Greek mythology all have tales associating women with cats. However, in the twentieth century, cats passed dogs in popularity. Lions are still associated with monarchy, while tigers are looked upon as bmtal killers (Sax, 1992). The elephant was considered a marvel in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Their size was always exaggerated and they were said to live 100 to 200 hundred years. They are often seen in old stories taking care of children, indicating they were responsible (Sax, 1992). They are also said to have extraordinary memories. The elephant in India is a symbol of Ganesh, the god of wisdom (Sax, 1990). Apes and monkeys are often portrayed in literature as resembling humans. Although this resemblance began occurring after the Middle Ages, it was not until the early nineteenth century when Harry Prentice wrote "Captured by Zulus,"* which told of apes mnning an island by despotic monarchy, did man associate with apes so closely (Sax, 1992). Birds are often seen as symbols of liberty and freedom (Sax, 1990). The dove, since the beginning of Christianity, has been a symbol of God, and angels are perceived to possess wings. Mercatante (1974) stated, "What do birds say? In folklore they often give a warning or a prophecy, or some sign of love" (p. 146). Birds, unlike mammals, do not show facial expressions. Yet, sometimes birds are seen to have more human characteristics than mammals in stories. Cold-blooded animals have less identification with humans than warm-blooded animals. Fish are even further removed from human likeness. Fish rarely talk in stories, and if they are seen talking, it is usually because of magic. However, in ancient rehgious stories, fish are seen as "a restorer to life and savior of mankind" (Mercatante, 1974, p. 31). Animals in Advertising Dotz and Morton (1996) stated, "In native cuhures, people have historically attributed to animals the embodiment of various spirits. This behef is called animism and is still practiced by advertisers. Sports teams still use animals as mascots, who are supposed to bring the team good luck. Few sports fans reaUze that the word 'mascot' comes from the French word for 'sorcerer'" (p. 40). There are a few animals used in advertising a century ago which are still in use today. One of these animals is RCA's fox terrier, Nipper. This image of the friendly dog 10 was first captured when it became enthused with his original owner's phonographic voice recording. His new owner painted a picture of Nipper, and sent it to a phonograph company. When the phonograph company showed no interest, he repainted the picture. This time he showed the dog staring into the new invention of a gramophone, and sent it to the Gramophone Company. The painting was accepted and used as the Gramophone Company's logo. This company changed its name to Victor Talking Machine Company, which was purchased by RCA in 1929. Nipper has been loved for over 70 years, and still appears in ads for RCA's new technological products, along with his son. Chipper (Dotz & Morton, 1996). The bulldog for Mack Tmcks, Inc. has been aroimd slightly longer than Nipper. Mack Tmcks acquired its bulldog logo in 1922, after the British soldiers nicked-named the huge, unbeatable, snub-nosed tmcks "buUdogs" in WW I. In 1932, the company's chief engineer carved a bulldog out of soap, while lying in a hospital bed, and soon thereafter it became the model for the hood ornament (Dotz & Morton, 1996). This bulldog is still used today in advertising and on Mack tmcks. Another famous dog has been aroimd since 1914: the Greyhound Bus Company mascot. It was not until someone commented to the company owner, Carl Wickman, that his buses, painted gray to hide road dirt, looked like a greyhound streaking down the highway did he change the name of his bus company and his logo. Then Wickman took on the slogan "Ride the Greyhound" (Dotz & Morton, 1996). The Wolverine Shoe Company used the bassett hound to advertise its quiet shoes. Hush Puppies. This term originated from the southern food of fried commeal biscuits. 11 called "hush puppies," because originally these biscuits were given to dogs to keep them quiet during dinner (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Other dogs have made their mark in advertising history: Axekod made his mark for Flying A gasoline service stations in the mid-1960s; Stopper was used for American Brakeblok safety linings in the 1970s; Barking Cough Dog was used in the 1970s for Naldecon-CX cough symp; Fetch and T-bone were dogs used to advertise Fetch dog food and T-bone dog biscuits in the early 1960s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). These are just a few historical dogs used in dozens of commercials over the years. Other animals which have been popular are cows, penguins, tigers, pigs, and birds. Several comical cows have become famous over the years. These include: Elmer, for Ehner's Glue-All in the late 1960s; Elsie, for Borden dairy products in the 1970s; Tillie from Tillamook, for Tillamook cheese in 1958; and Nestle's Cow (German) for Nestle's Quik chocolate drink mix in the 1970s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). The American branch of Nestle's used the Nestle's Rabbit for the same product. Penguins were used for Kool cigarettes in the late 1950s and Munsingwear men's apparel and underwear in the early 1950s. The Electro lux Tiger was used for Electro lux vacuum cleaners in the mid1960s. Jordan's Pig was used for Jordan's ready-to-eat meats in the late 1930s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Some birds which have been used in the early years are Chicken Dehght, for Chicken Delight take-out restaurants in the mid-1960s; Varig Bird (Brazil) for Varig Airlines in the 1970s; and Wise-Buy Owl was used by Ward's Riverside tires also in the 1970s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Newer ads with animals which have been introduced to the consumer are: Raid Bug, for Raid insecticide in the 1980s; Energizer Bunny, for 12 Energizer batteries, introduced in 1991; Spuds MacKenzie, for Bud Light Beer in 1989; and Joe Camel, for Camel Cigarettes in 1991. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) studied advertisements containing animals. Their three points of interest in the study were the types of animals which appeared, the product advertised and if the animal presented anthropomorphism. They foimd the four most used animals were dogs, cats, horses and birds. It was found that ads did associate animals with specific product categories, as had been predicted. Durable and non-durable products used the dog the most. The horse was used most often with alcohol/tobacco products. Dogs and horses were used most often with durable products. It was also found in this study that anthropomorphic animals were found most often with non-durable products, such as pet foods and services. Animals in their natural state were found most often with liquor products. Wild animals were shown most often with service products. Between durable and non-durable products, wild animals w ere most frequently shown with durable products. Comparing wUd animals with domestic animals in ads, it was discovered that w ild animals were shown more with anthropomorphic features than domestic animals. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) also studied humans and their appearance in the ads with the animals. Humans were foimd to appear with the animals in ads for durable and non-durable products. Alcohol/tobacco products ads showed humans with animals the least. A category also examined by Spears, Mowen, and Chakrabort) was whether the animal was controlled. The previous study defmed the controlled categor\ as an animal 13 "on a leash or in a cage" (p. 91). When the animals were shown to be controlled in the ads, they were most commonly dogs or horses. Also, dogs and horses were more regularly shown with humans, as were domesticated animals on the whole. Kleppner's Advertising Spiral The content of an advertisement varies by the advertising spiral stage of the product. Kleppner noticed three stages of advertisements, naming them pioneering, competitive, and retentive. The definitions of the stages are: 1. Pioneering stage: "The advertising stage of a product in which the need for such product is not recognized and must be established or in which the need has been established but the success of a commodity in filling those requirements has to be established." 2. Competitive stage: "The advertising stage a product reaches when its general usefubess is recognized but its superiority over similar brands has to be established in order to gain preference." 3. Retentive stage: "The advertising stage of a product, reached when its general usefulness is widely known, its individual quahties are thoroughly appreciated, and it is satisfied to retain its patronage merely on the strength of its past reputation" (Russell and Lane, 1992, p. 56-60). All of the stages can repeat themselves, in that order, to form the advertising spiral. 14 The ad in the pioneering stage is an introduction to a new product. The ad is usually full of informative copy with appropriate pictures illustrating the text. This stage tries to educate the audience about the product. Interplak came out with a new electric toothbmsh in the late 1980s. Their pioneering ads had several paragraphs of text, with the headUne, "Announcing the most dramatic development in home dental care since the invention of the toothbmsh." The ad also shows three small sketches, positioned in the center of the ad, of the bmsh at work bmshing teeth. The right side of the ad has a picture of the Interplak consuming almost the whole page (Russell & Lane, 1992). The competitive stage ad is used when the consumer generally knows the product category and that there are other competitive products or services on the market. These competitive stage ads will compare the product to its competitors, but not necessarily by name. An example of the competitive stage ad is one for P-I-E Traderoute. A two-page ad, the left page features a picture of a deserted crate tumed upside down standing alone on a pier, looking weathered. The right page has large bold print, proclaiming: "Sure, Other Freight Companies Get You To Europe. But Then What?" This is followed b> a small paragraph of small text telling of P-I-E Traderoute's services (Russell & Lane, 1992). Retentive stage ads are reminding the consumers of their well-known product. This stage is to keep the advertiser's customers focused on the brand name. This type of ad is commonly used in mainstream products such as soft drinks and fast food restaurants. An example of this would be an ad that is simple, such as one used bv Reebok. This one page ad has a colorful view of hot air balloons from the inside of one of the balloons, with feet sticking out of the basket wearing Reebok shoes. Below the 15 picture, in the middle of the page, are the words "The Shoe Fits." At the bottom of the ad the Reebok symbol appears (Russell & Lane, 1992). Kleppner's Advertising Spiral will be used as a basis for the study. Kleppner states, "there are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the competitive stage. Products in the retentive stage usually get the least amount of advertising. This stage, however, represents a critical moment in the life cycle of a product, when important management decisions must be made" (Russell & Lane, 1992, p. 61). Kleppner's statement will be tested as to whether or not it holds tme for animals in magazine advertisements, or if the stages of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral are found to be in a different ranking order. The Svmbolic Communications Model Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) developed the symbolic communications model (SCM) as a framework for understanding animals in advertisements and their symbolic fiinction (see Figure 1). The product meaning bundle is the connection of the animal with the product. The meaning is transferred to the product by building associative linkages between the product and the symbol. Gestalt psychology is used to recognize this association. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "the cuhurally constituted world is composed of a variety of entities, including animals that can be given symboUc meaning by people in a culture. These symbols and their meanings are appropriated and linked to products via Gestah processes of unit formation creation. These messages are then communicated by the media to consumers" (p. 88). The authors also stated, 16 "According to Gestah psychologists, unit connections are built in a variety of ways, including similarity, interaction, proximity, familiarity and ownership" (p. 89). Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the ways in which we interpret images in two-dimensional spaces, such as the images that appear on the pages of a book. Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1975) stated, "The whole is different from the sum of its parts - a favorite phrase of Gestalt psychologists" (p. 130). Bmce and Green (1990) acknowledged Gestah psychology has five laws of organization. These are principles of perceptual organization, whether it is grouping of sub-regions of figures or separation of figures from the ground. The five laws are proximity, similarity, common fate (interaction), good continuation (famiharity) and closure (ownership). As the majority of Gestah psychology research was done by German psychologists, some of the words are translated differently when they are translated into English. Therefore, the five laws do not appear in every study under the same exact heading. Bmce and Green (1990) stated, "One of the most important factors determining the perceptual organization of a scene is proximity of the elements with it" (p. 110). The idea of this law is items that are close together are grouped together. According to Rubin and McNeil (1985), "This tendency to view objects in terms of the proximity of their elements is relied on in printed photographs, comic book panels, and television pictures, which are all actually arrays of dots or lines that we perceive as shapes and objects" (p. 116). Similarity is the straightforward idea of "things which look similar are grouped together" (Bruce & Green, 1990. p.l 10). The human mind organizes items in condition 17 of their similarity to one another. Gestah principles highlight the strong predisposition for people to give our perceptions a total stmcture (Rubin & McNeil, 1985, p. 116). Common fate is the idea of "things which appear to move together are grouped together" (Bmce & Green, 1990, p. 111). An example of this is how a wild animal can stay camouflaged in hs surroimdings. However, if the animal moves then h is easier to observe. Hochberrg (1998) stated, "Good continuation refers to the observation that we organize our perceptions so as to preserve unbroken contours" ( p. 261). How a person will put broken individual pieces into a shape by combining them visually is an example of good continuation. Closure is the perceptual organization of seeing figures as closed rather than open (Bmce & Green, 1990, p. 112). An example of this is when dots are laid on paper. A person will see them as representing a particular figure. The ends of the pattem seen will be coimected in the human mind, making a shape. "We are mentally primed to fill in the gaps and to see h as a complete figure" (Rubin & McNeil, 1985, p. 116). The SCM uses the five laws of Gestah psychology to help understand the product meaning bundle and how it is Unked between the product and symbol. The SCM shows that nothing has cuUural meaning until humans assign a meaning to the item. Humans make animals relevant to peoples' existence. By this process, the animals take on symbolic significance of meaning (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "Advertisers attempt to create a product meaning bundle by associating the animal symbol with the product. Meaning is 18 transferred to the product by building associative linkages between the product and the symbol" (p. 89). This refers to the Gestah law of proximity. The meaning of symbols can change over time and the authors of the SCM were aware of this process. When changing meanings of symbols, the meaning of products may change, also changing the cuhural meaning. This is a change of which the advertiser needs to be aware. Gender roles or cuhural beliefs might change, shifting the entire society. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "For example, Marlboro cigarettes have moved from bemg a woman's cigarette to a symbol of independence and masculinity" (p. 89). Advertisers associate the animal with its symbohc meaning which arises from the cuhurally constituted world (CCW) with the product. By assigning a CCW meaning of the product, the advertiser estabhshes a message between a cuhure and the product (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty's SCM will be used as a guide for this study and thus resuhs will be compared to the findings of the current study. 19 Cuhurally Constituted World (CCW) (Repository of Values, Ideas, Behefs, and Meanings) Deities I Mankind I Material World I I Natural Manmade Appropriation of Symbols Sender Type Advertiser Fashion Designers Politicians Teachers Animal w '•• ^ \ 1 Communications System • T fMedia^ Product V Receiver Pro(luct Meanine Bundle Feedback Via Marketine Research Figure 1. Symbohc Communications Model (SCM) (Source: Spears, Mowen & Chakraborty, 1996, p. 89) 20 CHAPTER III RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Content analysis allows the examination of animals and their appearance in magazine advertisements. This is the most appropriate research technique because h allows for the full examination of the content of each advertisement. It allows for an orderly, objective and quanthative manner of measuring variables. This study will investigate the usage of animals in magazine advertisements from January 1998-October 2000 in 99 magazines. It is hoped this study will answer the following research questions: RQl: Which animals are used most often with a particular product type? RQ2: Are the majority of these animal advertisements in a certain stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral? RQ3: Do the animals in the ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic characteristics? These answers to these questions will show how animals ha\ e been used in magazine ad\ertisements from January 1998-October 2000, what kind of product companies use animals, and in what manner these animals appear. Research Question 1: Which animals are used most often with a particular product category? Hypotheses: Hi: There is a relationship between the t\pe of animal and the frequency of its use in product categories of durable, non-durable, and service. 21 H2: The animal used most will be the dog whh non-durable products. H3: The animal used the least v ^ be the fish with service products. It is anticipated the dog will be used most because the dog is known as man's best friend (Sax, 1992). Non-durable products are products that last, Uke the fiiendship of a dog. Smce dogs appeal to many people, it would give the impression that they would appear in most of the ads, in order for the products they are with to appeal to more consumers. The Gestah law of proximity supports this idea. Fish are thought to have less association with humans (Sax, 1992); therefore, they should be used less. Service products are not tangible items, so they would have less connection to humans than would a durable or non-durable product. Service products are less plausible to have human identity to them, so using fish with the ad makes the ideas similar in use. Again, the Gestah law of proximity is used here, but reversed. Since these products and animals are not seen together, they are not grouped together in a human's mind. H4: There will be a direct relationship between the type of product or service and the use of a wild, domestic, or other type of animal. H5: Domestic animals will be used most with non-durable products. Non-durable products are thought to be advertised more because they are purchased more frequently, so these ads would relate to most people (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Domestic animals are those consumers relate to more because the\ are household pets, and are more Ukable than wild animals. Advertisers have a definite product image they want to portray about their product by using a particular animal with their ad. The advertiser uses the appropriate svTnbol of the animal to communicate a desired meaning (Spears, Mowen, & Chakrabort\. 1996). i-y Associating a product wdth a group of cuhural meanings not generally associated with that product category is known as transformational advertising. This idea fits into the symbohc commimications model. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "For example, the association of the tiger - representing speed and power - with a breakfast cereal transforms the meaning of the product from one of simply eating breakfast to one of attaining speed and power" (p. 90). Research Question 2: Are the majority of animal advertisements in a certain stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral? Hypothesis: H6: When animals are used in ads, there is a relationship between the type of product advertised (durable, non-durable or service) and its Kleppner's Advertising Spiral stage. H7: Non-durable products in the competitive stage will use animals in advertising most. Hg: Service products in the retentive stage will use animals in advertising the least. Kleppner states, "There are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the competitive stage. Products in the retentive stage usually get the least amount of advertising. This stage, however, represents a critical moment in the life cycle of a product, when important management decisions must be made" (Russell & Lane, 1992. p. 61). This statement by Kleppner will be used as a source for comparison of this stud\ 's findings. His ideas will be the basis of predicting this particular outcome. 23 Non-durable products are predicted to be advertise more frequently because more advertising is spent on cheaper products, which consimiers shop for morefrequent1\ (groceries, for example) (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Service products are predicted to be used the least because of the assumption that there are fewer service products which are advertise because of their hmited target audience (Spears, Mowen. & Chakraborty, 1996). Research Question 3: Do animals in ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic characteristics? Hypothesis: H9: Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will be used more than anthropomorphic characteristics. Changing an animal to have anthropomorphic characteristics will affix extra attention to the advertisement. This can aher the meaning of the animal from its traditional meaning. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "For example, a new cultural meaning was created by the transformation of a camel to a hip, modem character by giving h human characteristics in ads for Camel cigarettes" (p. 90). Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will probably be used the most because of the connection people might feel with the natural state of the animal. The Gestah law of similarity explains this situation. Humans come into contact with their own household animals on a daily basis. They will connect their animals whh the ones that might appear in magazine ads. 24 A mix of anthropomorphic and nonanthropomorphic characteristics should be rare to find in one advertisement. The advertisers would not want to cause confusion in the minds of the consimier as to whether it portrays a negative or positive image with one animal havmg himian characteristics and the other not. There is no evidence in the previous study that having a mixture was a problem in coding the ads. Therefore, this study will assume that it will find few or no ads containing animals with both anthropomorphic and nonanthropomorphic characteristics. 25 CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY Content analysis was the research method used for this study. It was an effectiv e methodology used in a similar study: Symbolic Roles ofAnimals in Print Advertising: Content Analysis and Conceptual Development (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Todd (1990) studied the content of perfume ads m one woman's magazine usmg content analysis. Todd looked at ads from three years from three different decades, 1962. 1972 and 1982. It was found that perfume advertisers omitted the prices of their product ads over time. There was also an increase in the representation of women in ads as independent and "free" over the thirty years. Todd's study is an example of the successful use of content analysis as a method of research. The current study involved a content analysis of 400 magazine advertisements containing animals. This sample size was chosen because of the greater likelihood of having a sample which would yield statistically significant resuhs. (The previous study by Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty [1996] used 298 ads.) The ads were obtained from an assortment of magazines from, January 1998-October 2000. This time period was selected because more recent data could be collected. A variety of magazines were searched to collect the sample material. From the spring through the fall of 2000, several sources were used to collect the ads. These included an undergraduate advertising class of 175 students, a seventh grade class of 30 students and a variety of other people from wide age groups. Their instmctions were to collect full-page ads featuring animals from the given time period from any Ainerican magazine. This method allowed an unlimited 26 selection of magazines which allowed a variety of advertisements to be collected. It allowed for an ample number of ads to use in the study. Two undergraduate students and one college graduate coded the advertisements. There were 11 measures on the coding sheet: the advertisement identification number; the name of the product; the type of product, using the Nielsen product guide; whether the product was classified as durable, non-durable or service; the nimiber of animals appearing in the ad; the type of animal most dominant in the ad; whether the animal was domestic, wild or other; whether the animal was seen as a photograph or drawn; whether the animal was seen as anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic; and the stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral for the ad; and the magazine in which the advertisement was found. Only full-page advertisements were coded, as it has become a standard for content analysis studies to examine only this size of ad. Intercoder rehabihty was important in this study. This system required 100% intercoder agreement. This was achieved by having the coders discuss questions and reach an agreement on each question. They also were given a description sheet (Appendbc B) defining all the measures. Using a description sheet as a reference was a way to reduce questions and have better understanding of what was being studied. It was important to document that the collected data was accurate and that the resuhs of the test can be seen as tme, whhout any questions about accuracy. All of these measures allowed for comparison within the categories. The most important findings were which of the Kleppner's Advertising Spiral are used the most with animals, and what type of product (using the Nielsen product categories) the animal was used to advertise. 27 The chi-square test for differences and the Goodman's and Kmskal's Lambda were performed on all the test resuhs. Descriptive statistics and the contingency tables were also examined. Coding Sheet Definitions Included with the codmg sheets for the coders was a description sheet which gave definitions for all of the measures and categories. The first task was to write down the advertisement identification number that the ad was assigned before coding began. This allowed for easy identification if the ad needed to be examined at a later time. The name of the product being advertised in the magazine ad was written in the space provided for measure two. For measure three, a check was put by the appropriate Nielsen product category. Nielsen is the largest research company in the world, with vast experience in collecting research data (http://www.nielsenmedia.com/). This hst was composed of 42 categories containing all possible product types. These 42 categories were reduced to five broad product categories: technology, people, food, house supphes and pet supphes. Technology products include products invented by science. These products ranged from automobiles to computer software. People products are goods specifically used by people. These include personal hygiene products, jewelry and apparel. The food category consists of items consimied by people. Distilled spirits, cereals and candy were products that are included in this category. House supphes are items used in a household. Furnishings, stationery and garden care are a few hsted in this category. Pet supphes are items bought to be used for pet animals. Dog food, pest repellent and cat litter were included in this category. 28 Measure four determined which type of product was advertised. A check was put by which type of product apphed to the advertisement. This included the categories of durable (products capable of whhstanding wear or decay such as furniture and cars); nondurable (products which cannot withstand wear or decay such as food/alcohol, tobacco and pet food); and service (work done for others as an occupation or business such as United Parcel Service, mechanic and dot com companies). Measure five counted how many animal species are seen in the advertisement. The type of animal was written in the space provided for measure six. In measure seven the animals were reduced to three categories: domestic (i.e., dog, cat, fish, tamed horse), wild (i.e., cheetah, elephant), or other (i.e., puppet, unable to tell). The animal was recorded as ehher drawn or a photograph for measure eight. Measure nine recorded if the animal appeared in an anthropomorphic state (having human characteristics or imitating a human) or a nonanthropomorphic state (not having human characteristics or imitating a human). Measure ten recorded which stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral the advertisement represents. These stages were pioneering, competitive and retentive. The final measure was the name of the magazine from which the advertisement came. 29 CHAPTER V RESULTS A total of 400 advertisements containing animals were examined. No dupUcations were used in the coding process because the content of each animal advertisement was the focus of the study and not the effects of repethion of the advertisement. By looking at the descriptive statistics and then at the mode (see Table I). the following conclusions were made. • The animal used most was the dog (32.25%). • There were more non-durable products than durable and service (42.50%). • Domestic animals were shown more often than wild animals (62.25%). • The majorhy of the ads were seen in Kleppner's retentive stage of the advertising spiral (39.00%). • Animals were used to advertise more people products than any other product (30.50%). • More photographs were used than drawings in the advertisements (88.00%). • The majority of the animals had nonanthropomorphic characteristics (92.25%). As shown in Table 1, the mixed category of animals (consisting of 30 animals) was used the most. The least used animal was the fish (other than those animals grouped under the category of inixed). The type of product used most in animal ads was non-durable. 30 Durable products were close in frequency use to that of service products, with durable being the least to use animals. The frequency distribution data for the kind of animal shows the most used kind of animal was domestic (for example, dog, cat). Wild (for example, cheetah, elephant) and other followed in frequency, respectively. The distribution of the data frequency for Kleppner's Advertising Spiral shows the retentive stage was most used with advertisements containing animals. The pioneering and the compethive stage were ahnost used in the same amount. The remainder of the collected data was revealing. The distribution of the data frequencies for Nielsen's Product Categories, Photograph/Drawn, Anthropomorphic/ Nonanthropomorphic shows the most products advertised with the most animals were people products. Pet supplies and technology products were second most used, whh one frequency number difference. Photographed animals were used abundantly more than drawn animals in advertisements. Anthropomorphic animals were used in advertisements remarkably more often than nonanthropomorphic animals. Research Question 1: Which animals are used most often with a particular product category? Animals appearing in lesser numbers were grouped as a mixture; this category accounted for the majority of animal usage for durable, non-durable, service. When deleting the mixture category, a relationship is stiU foimd between animals used in product categories (see Table 3). 31 The chi-square test for differences was performed on all data. For type of product by type of animal, the resuhs indicate significant differences between durable, nondurable and service products with types of animals (X^ =24.86; dF=8; p=.001; see Table 2). Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship between the type of animal and the frequency of its use m product categories of durable, non-durable, and service. Hypothesis 1 was accepted. As seen m both Table 2 and Table 3. a statistically significant diff'erences were foimd between type of animal used and product type. By looking at Table 2, the following was found to be prevalent whh the type of animal and product categories: the dog with non-durable (44.96%); the bird (51.35%). the fish (42.85%), the horse (44.18%) with service; the mixed category whh non-durable (45.40%). H2: The animal used most will be the dog whh non-durable products. Table 3 shows H2 to be tme; the animal used most was the dog whh non-durable products (X'=21.78;dF=8;p=.001). H3: The animal used the least will be the fish whh service products. Table 3 also shows fish are lesser used, and were used less in service product ads. H3 was accepted (X^ =21.78; dF=8; p=.001). Hypothesis 4: There will be a direct relationship between the type of product or service and the use of a wild, domestic, or other type of animal. Table 4 shows durable, non-durable and service all used domestic animals most. Hypothesis 4 was accepted (X^ =17.68; dF=2; p=.0001). H5: Domestic arumals will be used most whh non-durable products. 32 Table 4 shows non-durable products used domestic animals more. Hypothesis 5 was accepted (X^ =17.68; dF=2; p=.0001). The domestic aiumal was found whh non-durable products at 48.99%. The wild animal was found whh service at 40.31%. Research Question 2: Are the majority of these animal advertisements in a certain stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral? By looking at Table 5, the resuhs mdicate significant differences between durable/non-durable/ service products by Kleppner's Advertismg Sphal. Most of the ads using animals were found to be m the retentive stage (156 (39%)). Hypothesis 6: When animals are used m ads, there will be a relationship between the type of product advertised (durable, non-durable or service) and hs Kleppner's Advertising Spiral stage. Table 5 shows statistically significant differences between the type of product using animals m ads and Kleppner's Advertismg Sphal. Durable and non-durable appear most in the retentive stage; service appears most m the compethive stage. Hypothesis 6 was accepted (X^=13.11; dF=4; p=.0l0). H7: Non-durable products m the compethive stage wiU use animals m advertismg most. Non-durable, retentive stage products used animals the most (18.75%) of the total ads. H7 was not accepted (X^ =13.11; dF=4; p=.0l0; see Table 5). Hg: Service products m the retentive stage wiU use arumals m advertismg the least. 33 Lookmg at Table 5, only 7.75% of the total ads with arumals were m the retentive stage with service products. Therefore, Hg was accepted (X^ =13.11; dF=4; p=.010). Research Question 3: Do animals in ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic characteristics? Table I shows 7.75% m the anthropomorphic stage and 92.25% m the nonanthropomorphic stage. Hypothesis 9: Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will be used more than anthropomorphic characteristics. The majority of the ads contam animals that use nonanthropomorphic characteristics, acceptmg Hypothesis 9. Further testmg was not requked. 34 Table 1: Frequency of Variables Value Type of Animal Dog Bird Fish Horse Mixed Frequency Percent Total 129 37 28 43 163 400 32.25 9.25 7.00 10.75 40.75 100 Type of PrcxJuct Durable Non-Durable Service Total 114 170 116 400 28.50 42.50 29.00 100 Kind of Animal Domestic Wild Other/Mix Total 249 129 22 400 62.25 32.25 5.50 100 Kleppner's Advertising Spiral Pioneering Competitive Retentive Total 123 121 156 400 30.75 30.25 39.00 100 Nielsen's Product Categories People Products Pet Supplies Technology Products House Supplies Fcx)d Total 122 87 86 67 38 400 30.50 21.75 21.50 16.75 9.50 100 Photograph/Drawn Photograph Drawn Total 352 48 400 88.00 12.00 100 Anthropomorphic/Nonanthropomorphic Anthropomorphic 31 Nonanthropomorphic 369 Total 400 7.75 92.25 100 35 Table 2: Animal Use by PrcxJuct Type Durable Non-Durable Service Dog Bird Fish Horse Mixed Total Total 129 46 35.65 40.35 4.50 58 44.96 34.11 14.50 25 19.37 21.55 6.25 6 16.21 5.26 1.50 12 32.43 7.05 3.00 19 51.35 16.37 4.75 6 21.42 5.26 1.50 10 35.71 5.88 2.50 12 42.85 10.34 3.00 8 18.60 7.02 2.00 16 37.20 9.41 4.00 19 44.18 16.37 4.75 48 29.44 42.10 12.00 74 45.40 43.53 18.50 41 25.15 35.34 10.25 40.75 114 28.50 170 42.50 116 29.00 400 100 32.25 37 9.25 28 7.00 43 10.75 163 Note: Chi-Square = 24.86; dF = 8; p = .001 Cell Legend: Number Observed % in Row % in Column % of Total Sample 36 Table 3: Animal Use by Product Type (no mixed category) Durable Dog Bird Fish Horse Total Non-Durable Service Total 46 35.65 69.7 19.41 58 44.96 60.42 24.47 25 19.37 33.33 10.55 6 16.21 9.09 2.53 12 32.43 12.50 5.06 19 51.35 25.33 8.02 6 21.42 9.09 2.53 10 35.71 10.42 4.22 12 42.85 16.00 5.06 8 18.60 12.12 3.37 16 37.20 16.66 6.75 19 44.18 25.33 8.02 18.14 66 27.85 96 40.51 75 31.64 237 100 129 54.43 37 15.61 28 11.81 43 Note: Chi-Square = 21.78; dF = 6; p = .001 Cell Legend: Number Observed % in Row % in Column % of Total Sample 37 Table 4: Product Type by Animal Portrayed Durable Non-Durable Service Domestic Wild Total Total 72 28.92 64.86 19.05 122 48.99 76.25 32.28 55 22.09 51.40 14.55 39 30.23 35.14 10.32 38 29.46 23.75 10.05 52 40.31 48.60 13.76 34.13 111 29.37 160 42.32 107 28.31 378 100 249 65.87 129 Note: Chi-Square = 17.68; dF = 2; p = .0001 Cell Legend: Number Observed % in Row % in Column % of Total Sample 38 Table 5; PrcxJuct Type by Kleppner's Advertising Spiral Durable Non-Durable Service Total Pioneering 34 27.64 29.82 8.50 52 42.28 30.59 13.00 37 123 30.08 31.90 9.25 30.75 Competitive 30 24.79 26.32 7.50 43 35.54 25.29 10.75 121 48 39.67 41.38 12.00 30.25 Retentive 50 32.05 43.86 12.50 75 48.08 44.12 18.75 31 156 19.87 26.72 7.75 39.00 Total 114 28.50 170 42.50 116 29.00 Note: Chi-Square = 13.11; dF = 4; p = .010 Cell Legend: Number Observed % in Row % in Column % of Total Sample 39 400 100 CHAPTER VI DISCUSSION Analysis Kleppner states, 'there are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the compethive stage. Products in the retentive stage usuaUy get the least amount of advertising. This stage, however, represents a critical moment m the life cycle of a product, when hnportant management decisions must be made'" (Russell & Lane. 1992, p. 61). The current study found that when ammals were used m magazme advertisements Kleppner's statement is false. The ads whh animals were found to be most used m the retentive stage. The second most-used stage was found to be the pioneermg stage, m line whh Kleppner. The stage used least whh animal ads was the compethive stage, the opposhe of Kleppner's analysis of all ads. Kleppner stated most ads were m the compethive stage. Retentive stage ads remind the consumers of weU-known products. This stage keeps the advertiser's customers focused on the brand. This stage might be used the most whh ads for products featurmg arumals because animals are memorable creatures. In comparmg the previous study of Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) whh the current study, the two studies tested different areas but also tested some sunilar areas which can be compared. Of the areas compared, h was found that there are some sunilar findmgs. Their three pomts of mterest m the study were the types of arumals which appeared, the product advertised, and if the arumal was presented anthropomorphically. 40 Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) foimd the four most used animals were dogs, cats, horses and bu-ds. The current study supports theh findmgs. Dogs, horses and bu-ds were foimd the most m the current study. Fish were also found to account for 7% of animal ads, but cats were mfi-equently found m the current study. Durable and non-durable product ads used the dog the most m the Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) study. In the current study, non-durable product ads used the category of mixed most fi'equently then the dog category. It is unclear whether or not the previous study had the category of mixed. This is a limitation m comparison. Dogs and horses were used most often whh durable products m Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) study. In the present study, the mixed category and then dogs were used the most m the durable category. The current study also agrees whh the previous study. The most used animal is the dog, as the mixed category is made fi'om several animals. Horses were second most used, confirming the Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) study. It was also found m the previous study that anthropomorphic animals were found most often whh non-durable products, such as pet foods and services. This was also found m the current study, along whh nonanthropomorphic bemg used the most whh non-durable products. Wild animals were shown most often whh service products m the Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) study. Also, between durable and non-durable products, v\ ild arumals were most fi'equently shown whh durable products m the previous study. In the current study h was also found that wild aiumals were shown most often v\ith service products, then whh durable products, but closely followed by non-durable. There was 41 only one ad difference between the durable and the non-durable product categories. These findings could be because wild animals can be seen as powerful. Associating power whh a service company could unply that they are a strong, well-built busmess. The Gestah psychology law of proximity supports the idea of associatmg the animal with a busmess to get a complete idea, groupmg the two hnages together. In the previous study, the crossing of wild animals whh domestic revealed that wild animals were shown more whh anthropomorphic features than domestic animals. The total opposhe was found to be true m the current study. The current study found that wild animals were shown 119 tunes whh nonanthropomorphic features, and only 10 tunes whh anthropomorphic characteristics. This difference could be explamed because the previous study's codmg definitions were unreported. The definitions of the terms anthropomorphic, nonanthropomorphic, domestic and wild might have mcluded different terminology. The previous study also tested whether the animal was controlled, and if a human appeared along whh the animal m the ad. Controlled could have meant wild animals wearmg a collar or ribbon/bow and therefore considered domestic. This measure, along whh other factors m the previous study, was not tested m the current study, and could be an explanation for the extreme difference m the resuhs. It was shown m the SCM model that there were a variety of different cuhural creatures which could be given different symbohc connotations. These animals and theh meanuigs were then connected to different products, comprismg the product meanmg bundle, and then formed mto advertisements to target the consumer. The animal was then associated whh the product, and the symbolic meanmg of the anunal transferred to 42 the product. This was shown in the previous study. Symbohc meaning was not measured m the current study. It is hnportant to understand how animals are used m magazme advertisements, especially if a company is looking for a creative way to market a product. Usmg arumals is very memorable and animals also have ties to symbohsm. It is smart to choose an animal which will be used with a product wisely, to know what kmd of anunals other companies are usmg whh theh goods, and how the arumals are portrayed. This is associated whh the Gestah psychology sunilarity law. If a certam animal is used with a particular product, and when the same animal is seen m a different settuig, the origmal product will be recalled ui the viewer's memory. To be recognized as an unforgettable ad and to not blend m whh others advertisements, h might be a good idea to be a bh different. Gestah psychology law of closure supports the idea of hnkmg sunilar products together. If sunilar products do not have strong visual elements by themselves, then the human mind wiU close the gap by linking the two together to ha\ e a complete picture, even if, in reahty, the two are not linked. An example of bemg different would be if there was a need to advertise a durable product. Smce durable products are least advertised usmg animals, h could be a good idea to use ammals in an ad for a durable product to make h more memorable. By lookmg at the collected data (Table 1), the arumal used the most is the dog. Thus, h might not be a good idea to use an anunal which has been used widely before. Knowmg what is aheady m use m the advertismg world can be helpful m trymg to create new, unique advertisements. 43 Lunitations of This Studv and Suggestions for Future Research This study looked at 400 advertisements. For future research this number could be mcreased. An uicrease m the number of ads would help to ensure that the chi-square test would be able to be performed on all of the comparisons because there may be a larger number m all categories. An extensive amount of tune to collect the ads is suggested, as h took several months to collect 400 one-page advertisements featuring animals. The hmitations of this study mclude that only magazme advertisements were reviewed. Other print media were not examined; this might have changed the resuhs. Another limitation is that only American magazmes were used for the collection of the advertisements. By reviewing other countries' magazmes and understandmg theh cuhure and symbolism with animals, the resuhs may vary significantly. This difference may be more significant if a non-western cuhure is examined. Also, the ads were coUected m one geographical section of the country which may or may not have had an unpact on the sample. For future studies, consumer product and animal recaU could also be examined. This would show if the animals m the advertisements were as memorable as advertisers want theh ads to be and communicate the deshed symbohsm. It would be mterestmg to compare magazme advertisements featuring animals to that of television advertisements. Anthropomorphism might occur more whh the use of video, as it might capture more viewer attention. 44 Hypotheses Lunitations There were hmitations found m ruimmg the data whh chi-square tests for Hypotheses 1 through 5. Hypotheses 6 through 9 were not found to have such limitations. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 test resuhs (Table I) were hmited to five animal categories. The other animals found were grouped mto the category of mixed. This is because when compared to the product categories of durable, non-durable and service, the animals numbering less than five m any ceU had to be grouped whh the mixed category m order for the chi-square test to be run. There were 30 different types of animals included m the mixed category. The most frequently used animals grouped mto the mixed category were the cat (33 ads) and the cow (21 ads). The abundance of cow ads could be due to the geographical area m which the data was coUected (West Texas), and the large amount of agricuhural hterature available (10 magazmes whh 31 ads). Hypotheses 4 and 5 test resuhs (Table 2) were hmited to 378 ads, not 400. This is because, agam, less than five ads were found m the categories of other and mixed, which comprised only 2% and 1% of the total respectively. Therefore, these categories were removed because the Chi-square test could not be performed on categories whh such smaU numbers. 45 REFERENCES Arens, W. F. (1996). Contemporary Advertising. Chicago: Irwm. Bruce, V. & Green, P.R. (1990) Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology. East Sussex, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates, Pubhshers. Dotz, W. & Morton, J. (1996). What a Character: 2(f^ Century American Advertising Icons. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Hilgard, E.R., Atkmson, R.C. & Atkmson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to Psychology, 6''' Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Mercatante, A.S. (1974). Zoo of the Gods. New York: Harper & Row, Pubhshers. Inc. MhcheU, R.W., Thompson, N.S., & Miles, H.L. (1997). Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes, and Animals. Albany: State Univershy of New York Press. Nielsen Media, http://www.nielsenmedia.com/ Reuter. (1997, July 10). Joe Camel Makes an Exit: RJ Reynolds to replaces controversial Camel whh standard trademark camel. Wmston-Salem, N.C. Rook, D.W. (1999). Brands, Consumers, Symbols & Research: Sydney Levy on Marketing. London: Sage Pubhcations, Inc. Rubui, Z. & McNeil, E.B. (1985) Psychology: Being Human. New York: Harper & Row, Pubhshers. RusseU. J.T. & Lane, W.R. (1992). Kleppner's Advertising Procedure, 11'^ Edition. Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice HaU. RusseU, J.T. & Lane, W.R. (1993). Kleppner's Advertising Procedure, 12'^ Edition. Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice HaU. Sax, B. (1990). The Frog King: On Legends, Fables, Fairy Tales and Anecdotes of Animals. New York: Pace Univershy Press. Sax, B. (1992). The Parliament of Animals: Anecdotes and Legends from Books of Natural History 1775-1900. New York: Pace University Press. SivuUca, J. (1998). Soap, Sex and Cigarettes: A Cultural History of American Advertising. Behnont. CA: Wadsworth Publishmg Company. 46 Spears, N.E., Mowen, J.C. & Chakraborty, G. (1996). Symbohc Role of Anunals m Print Advertismg: Content Analysis and Conceptual Development. Journal of Business Research, 37, 87-95. Todd, V. (1990). Content Analysis of Motivational Need Appeals in Perfume Advertisements in Mademoiselle. Master's Thesis m Mass Communication, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. Webster's U New College Dictionary. (1995). Boston: Houghton Miffhn Company. 47 APPENDIX A ANIMALS IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS CODING SHEET 48 Arumals m Magazine Advertisements Codmg Sheet 1. Advertisement Identification 7. Kind of anunal: (most dominant) Number 1. Domestic 2. WUd 2. Name of product advertised: _ 3. Other (write m space) 8. Is the animal: (most dominant) 1. Photograph: 3. Nielsen's Product Category: 2. Drawn: ( s e e p a g e 2 — write corresponding number) 9. Is the animal: (most dommant) 1. Anthropomorphic 4. Type of product: _ 2. Nonanthropomorphic 1. Durable 2. Non-durable 10. Kleppner's lifecycle stage: 3. Service 1. Pioneermg 5. Number of animal species m the 2. Compethive picture: 1. 2. 3. Retentive _ 3- Z 4. 5. 11. What magazme did the ad come from? _ _ (wrhe m space) 6. Type of anunal: (most dominant) (wrhe m space) 49 APPENDIX B CODING SHEET DEFINITIONS 50 Codmg Sheet Definitions 1. Record the number which is written on the advertisement on the space provided. 2. Name of the product that is beuig advertised m the prmt ad should be written m the space provided. 3. Write which Nielsen product category the product advertised fits under by lookmg at the hst of Nielsen product categories. 4. Check which apphes to the ad. Durable: Products capable of withstanding wear or decay, (ex. furniture, cars) Non-Durable: Products that cannot withstand wear or decay, (ex. food, alcohol, tobacco, pet food) Service: Work done for others as an occupation or busmess. (ex. UPS, mechanic, dot com company) 5. Check how many anunals appear m the advertisement. 6. Write m the space provided. Animal type (ex. dog, cat, horse) When more than one animal is shown, record the most dominant animal m the ad. 7. Check which apphes to the ad. Kind of animal: Domestic (ex. dog, cat, fish, tamed horse) Wild (ex. cheetah, elephant) Other (ex. puppet) 51 8. Check which apphes to the ad. Photograph: an arumal which looks Uke a photograph has been taken of h Drawn: an animal which has been drawn by hand or computer (hne art) Other: (ex. puppet) 9. Check which apphes to the ad. Anthropomorphic: having human characteristics, or unitatmg a human Nonanthropomorphic: NOT havmg human characteristics, or imitatmg a human 10. Kleppner's Advertising Sphal: (Check which apphes to the ad.) Pioneering stage: "The advertismg stage of a product m which the need for such product is not recognized and must be estabhshed or m which the need has been estabhshed but the success of a commodhy mfiUmgthose requirements has to be estabhshed." Competitive stage: "The advertismg stage a product reaches when hs general useflihiess is recognized but its superiority over sunUar brands has to be estabhshed m order to gam preference." Retentive stage: "The advertising stage of a product, reached when hs general useflihiess is widely known, hs mdividual quahties are thoroughly appreciated, and h is satisfied to retam hs patronage merely on the strength of hs past reputation." 11. Write m which magazine the advertisement came from. This may be found wrhten on the back of the page of the advertisement. 52 PERMISSION TO COPY In presenting this thesis m partial fulfillment of the requu-ements for a master's degree at Texas Tech University or Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, I agree that the Library and my major department shall make it freely available for research purposes. Permission to copy this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Dfrector of the Library or my major professor. 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