Download USE OF ANIMAL IMAGERY IN MAGAZINE

USE OF ANIMAL IMAGERY IN
MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS
by
KIMBERLY NICOLE MOYERS, B.A.
A THESIS
IN
MASS COMMUNICATIONS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Approved
May, 2001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my committee, Dr. Keith Johnson, Dr. Sabrina Neeley, and
Dr. Roger Saathofif, for their help and support in the achievement of the completion of
this thesis. I am especially grateful to my parents, Tom and Aletha Moyers, for their
financial and moral support throughout my undergraduate and graduate degrees at Texas
Tech University.
u
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
ii
LIST OF TABLES
iv
CHAPTER
I.
INTRODUCTION
1
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
5
III.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
21
IV.
METHODOLOGY
26
V.
RESULTS
30
VI.
DISCUSSION
40
REFERENCES
46
APPENDICES
A. CODINGSHEET
49
B. CODING SHEET DEFINITIONS
51
ui
LIST OF TABLES
1. Frequency of Variables
35
2. Animal Use by Product Type
36
3. Animal Use by Product Type (no mixed category)
37
4. Product Type by Animal Portrayed
38
5. Product Type by Kleppner's Advertising Spiral
39
IV
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Advertising is a key method with which businesses communicate to their target
audiences (Rook, 1999). An advertisement's purpose is to persuade audiences to
purchase products, by whatever means. Advertisers began using artwork with text as
soon as print technology could produce that type of ad. Pictures make a product visual
and memorable to audiences. Making the product stick in the mind of the consumer, so
the shopper will purchase the product and bring the company business, is the purpose of
advertising (Sivulka, 1998).
If ads are not memorable, the company advertising its product is jeopardizing all
the money put into the production and distribution of the advertisements (Rook. 1999).
One path taken is to include animals in the ads. If the ad is unique, and the animal is one
consumers remember and like, the company will accomplish its goal of reaching its
audience.
Sivulka (1998) states that animals have been used in advertisements since the
beginning of advertising. One of the first advertising geniuses, P.T. Bamurru used
everything he could think of to promote his sideshows and circuses. He used wild
headlines, most of them false, with original ways to promote his circuses. Jumbo the
Elephant, who attracted people into the shows, was one of the first animals used in
advertising.
Another animal used in advertising very early was Nipper, a fox terrier who was
drawn with a cocked head and captivating look upon his face staring into a gramophone.
1
This became the symbol for RCA in 1929, when it bought out the Victor Talking
Machine Company. Today Nipper still appears in advertisements for RCA along with his
son. Chipper (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Nipper became a very memorable icon and the
company became successful by consumers recognizing RCA products over similar
brands. RCA's products are still brought to mind when the fox terriers appear.
Animals are sometimes used as visual metaphors, symbolic of the role the animal
played in a society (Sax, 1990). Occasionally, when there is nothing new to say about the
product and the advertisers just want to get the viewer's attention, they use animals in
their ads. Animals deliver a specific message without using too many words, and without
the animal, the ad just does not work as well in getting the point across to the consumer
(Spears, Mowen, «& Chakraborty, 1996). There are several advertisements featuring
animals which appear in magazines. These include Raid Bug for Raid insecticide in the
1980s, and Spuds MacKenzie for Bud Light Beer in 1989.
Magazines took a different outlook on advertising. At first, they depended on
subscribers to fiind the magazines. The subscribers looked upon ads as vulgar and
thought that the majority of the advertising was dishonest. For the most part, that was
true. Magazines did not use advertisements until the 1870s (Sivulka, 1998). Still, ads
were put at thefi^ontand back of the magazine so they would not be confused with
feature articles. Magazines soon became the place where companies wanted to advertise
products because this was the only national medium (Sivulka, 1998). Magazines soon
leamed that the earnings gained fi'om advertising could produce more money than
subscription revenues (Sivulka, 1998). Many advertisements incorporated pictures of
people and animals as soon as printing press technology progressed.
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Analyzing magazine ads in which animals appear has helped in understanding
when and how animals were used in promotion of products or services. Looking at
which type of product was placed with a particular animal was also been examined. The
meaning and symbols that animals portray cast a positive or negative impression of the
product (Rook, 1999). Making a negative image animal into a lovable one was key if the
product using such an animal was to succeed (Rook, 1999). Kellogg's Tony the Tiger
was an example of a feared animal becoming a likable, memorable one with the use of
cartooning the animal. This also may be accomplished with computer graphics and using
anthropomorphism (giving animals human characteristics).
The findings fi'om this study will allow companies to pick an appropriate animal
for their advertisements by looking at what others have done before. The product they
are trying to sell might be better advertised if they do not use animals similar to their
competitors. An example of this is Elsie the Cow, for Borden dairy products, and
Nestle's Cow in Germany, for Nestle's Quik chocolate drink mix (Dotz & Morton, 1996).
Nestle did not use a cow in America, but changed to a Nestle Rabbit. At this time several
other milk products already used the cow as their symbol. However, certain animals,
wild animals for example, might be associated with a particular category of products, in
which case the company might want to use a wild animal to have more recognition fi'om
the consumers. Marlboro cigarettes use wild horses and Camel cigarettes did use Joe
Camel although Joe Camel is no longer allowed to be used in ads due to the Master
Settlement Agreement in 1997 regarding Joe Camel appealing to children (the character
only appears as a Camel cigarettes icon). RJ Reynolds agreed not to use cartoon
characters in advertising or in promoting Camel cigarettes (Reuter. 1997).
3
This study used content analysis to look at many advertisements featuring
animals. Looking at this area of advertising assists in discovery of the use of animals for
products or services advertised in magazines.
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
"There is an universal tendency among mankind to conceive all beings like
themselves... We find human faces in the moon, armies in the clouds."
- David Hume, The Natural History of Religion
(Mitchell, Thompson, and Miles, 1997, p. 50)
Definitions
This study looked at advertising. Arens (1996) defines advertising as
"... the nonpersonal communication of information, usually paid for and usually
persuasive in nature, about products (goods and services) or ideas by identified sponsors
though various media" (p. 6).
Anthropomorphism was also an aspect of research in this study. Mitchell,
Thompson, and Miles (1997) stated
... anthropomorphism is best defined as in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary
(1977): the 'attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman things or events." I
further suggest that by definition it should be minimized although by nature it
cannot be eliminated; and that it occurs as one resuh of a perceptual strategy that
is both involuntary and necessary, (p. 51)
Durable and service products are product categories by which the advertisements
were examined. Webster's II New College Dictionary (1995) stated, "durable... Capable
of withstanding wear or decay" (p. 351) and "Service... work done for others as an
occupation or business" (p. 1010).
Creation of Print Advertising
Johannes Gutenberg changed the world, including advertising, with his invention
of the printing press in Germany in the 1440s (Arens, 1996). The printing press allowed
for interchangeable letters and a way to produce mass quantities of papers at a low cost.
Before the printing press, only monks and scholars could read and write and original
copies were made by hand. The new technology made it possible for the first mass media
to be established in the form of posters, handbills and signs (Arens, 1996). The first
EngUsh newspaper was the Weekly Newes of London in 1622 (Russell and Lane, 1993).
The first EngUsh print ad was a handbill in 1472 which was tacked to a church
door in London stating a prayer book was for sale (Arens, 1996). Not until 200 years
later did an ad appear in a newspaper stating a reward for stolen horses (Russell & Lane.
1993). Advertisements for consumer products soon followed.
The Boston Newsletter^ an American colonies' publication, began carrying ads in
1704 (Arens, 1996). One of the first ads was a reward for the capture of a thief and the
retum of several items of men's apparel (Russell & Lane, 1993).
Benjamin Franklin became the innovator of advertising art and various sizing of
type fonts in 1726. Franklin used white space and larger headlines to make the ads more
memorable (Arens, 1996). Thirty newspapers were in publication when the United States
was formed. Their ads consisted mostly of what is known today as classified or local ads
(Russell & Lane, 1993).
Advertising came to be known as an occupation in the mid-1800s. The increase
of nationally-distributed goods created the need for a wider area of sales promotions.
From this arose the need for advertisements and people to design and place them in
publications. There soon were numerous promotional tasks over the larger geographical
region. Newspapers began to pay agents to sell the space available for advertisements.
This gave birth to what we know now as an advertising agency (Sivulka, 1998).
Magazines
Benjamin Franklin tried to introduce America to his version of the magazine in
1741. His magazines included extracts fi'om books, essays and verse. The magazines
were in publication for six months. What we know as magazines today came into
popularity during the later part of the nineteenth century (Russell & Lane, 1993).
Illiteracy was at an all-time low at 10 percent in the 1900s. Railroads were very
efficient and carried mail across the country as no other transportation had before.
Congress made a second-class postage stamp for publications in 1879. The Hoe highspeed rotary press, the halftone method of printing photographs, and colored artwork now
all came into play. All of these factors helped boost the magazine's popularity (Russell
and Lane, 1993).
Fletcher Harper, publisher oi Harper's Monthly, thought advertising would
"desecrate literature with the announcements of tradespeople,"" so he placed all the ads in
the back of his upper middle class magazine (Russell & Lane, 1993).
The 10-cent magazine was here to stay by the 1890s. The magazines included
popular storiesfi-omwriters such as Rudyard Kipling, H.G. Wells and Mark Twain. The
Ladies' Home Journal reached a million circulation by 1902, with competitors not far
behind. The number of advertisements appearing in magazines then is comparable to
today's magazines. Harper's had 75 pages of ads; Cosmopolitan. 103 pages; McClure 'v.
120 pages (approximately) in every issue (Russell & Lane, 1993). Today, a sample of a
few magazines are: Better Homes and Gardens, 125; Reader's Digest. 75: and Ladies
Home Journal at 100 pages (Russell and Lane, 1993). These magazines had between 250
to 400 pages. Therefore, a fourth to a half of the magazine pages were ads.
Animal Svmbolism
Animals have always had an underlying symbolic meaning in their use in
literature (Sax 1992). Animal anecdotes do not have a single point of origin, but have
been around since fairy tales began. Some of the most beloved ones are included in the
fables of Aesop. Sax (1992) stated, "Aesop was a half-legendary figure who is said to
have lived on the island of Samos in the sbcth century B.C., mentioned by Herodotus.
Plato, Aristophanes and others. According to tradition, he was a slave who was granted
hisfi-eedomfor his skill in telling stories'" (p. 4). The animals featured in these stories
were original because they had minds like those of humans, thus making the animals
witty and attractive to their audience. Giving animals such human characteristics is
termed anthropomorphism (Mitchell, Thompson, & Miles, 1997).
Sax (1992) recognized these animals have an underlying meaning within their
story-morals. These stories are told using animals instead of humans to make them more
memorable. Animals depict human society by obtaining the same characteristics as
certain groups of people. Like humans, animals too are also divided into different ranks,
temperament and profession. People still perceive animals to have the characteristics
given them by storytellers. This has been the cycle of animal use in stories for centuries.
8
Sax (1992) affirmed, "The dog was by far the favorite domestic animal in
America until, in the latter twentieth century, it has been overtaken by the cat in
popularity" (p. 127). The dog has always been thought of as a loyal companion. Among
the best-known stories of dogs and their masters is that of the Welsh prince Llewelljn
and his faithful dog Gellert. When Llewellyn retumed home to find his baby son missing
and Gellert covered in blood, Llewellyn kills his dog, only to then hear the sounds of his
babyfi-ombehind the cradle. He then discovers the body of a wolf, and realizes that his
faithful dog had protected his baby.
Cats were often associated with witches in the late Middle Ages. The eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries have looked upon cats as incompatible with humans. This was
because cats seem to have an inner life unreachable by humans (Sax, 1992). Mercatante
(1974) stated, "...from the earliest times cats have always been associated with women"
(p. 48). Stories from Irish folklore, Hindu, ancient Egypt, Arab. Chinese and Greek
mythology all have tales associating women with cats. However, in the twentieth
century, cats passed dogs in popularity. Lions are still associated with monarchy, while
tigers are looked upon as bmtal killers (Sax, 1992).
The elephant was considered a marvel in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Their size was always exaggerated and they were said to live 100 to 200 hundred years.
They are often seen in old stories taking care of children, indicating they were
responsible (Sax, 1992). They are also said to have extraordinary memories. The
elephant in India is a symbol of Ganesh, the god of wisdom (Sax, 1990).
Apes and monkeys are often portrayed in literature as resembling humans.
Although this resemblance began occurring after the Middle Ages, it was not until the
early nineteenth century when Harry Prentice wrote "Captured by Zulus,"* which told of
apes mnning an island by despotic monarchy, did man associate with apes so closely
(Sax, 1992).
Birds are often seen as symbols of liberty and freedom (Sax, 1990). The dove,
since the beginning of Christianity, has been a symbol of God, and angels are perceived
to possess wings. Mercatante (1974) stated, "What do birds say? In folklore they often
give a warning or a prophecy, or some sign of love" (p. 146). Birds, unlike mammals, do
not show facial expressions. Yet, sometimes birds are seen to have more human
characteristics than mammals in stories.
Cold-blooded animals have less identification with humans than warm-blooded
animals. Fish are even further removed from human likeness. Fish rarely talk in stories,
and if they are seen talking, it is usually because of magic. However, in ancient rehgious
stories, fish are seen as "a restorer to life and savior of mankind" (Mercatante, 1974, p.
31).
Animals in Advertising
Dotz and Morton (1996) stated, "In native cuhures, people have historically
attributed to animals the embodiment of various spirits. This behef is called animism and
is still practiced by advertisers. Sports teams still use animals as mascots, who are
supposed to bring the team good luck. Few sports fans reaUze that the word 'mascot'
comes from the French word for 'sorcerer'" (p. 40).
There are a few animals used in advertising a century ago which are still in use
today. One of these animals is RCA's fox terrier, Nipper. This image of the friendly dog
10
was first captured when it became enthused with his original owner's phonographic voice
recording. His new owner painted a picture of Nipper, and sent it to a phonograph
company. When the phonograph company showed no interest, he repainted the picture.
This time he showed the dog staring into the new invention of a gramophone, and sent it
to the Gramophone Company. The painting was accepted and used as the Gramophone
Company's logo. This company changed its name to Victor Talking Machine Company,
which was purchased by RCA in 1929. Nipper has been loved for over 70 years, and still
appears in ads for RCA's new technological products, along with his son. Chipper (Dotz
& Morton, 1996).
The bulldog for Mack Tmcks, Inc. has been aroimd slightly longer than Nipper.
Mack Tmcks acquired its bulldog logo in 1922, after the British soldiers nicked-named
the huge, unbeatable, snub-nosed tmcks "buUdogs" in WW I. In 1932, the company's
chief engineer carved a bulldog out of soap, while lying in a hospital bed, and soon
thereafter it became the model for the hood ornament (Dotz & Morton, 1996). This
bulldog is still used today in advertising and on Mack tmcks.
Another famous dog has been aroimd since 1914: the Greyhound Bus Company
mascot. It was not until someone commented to the company owner, Carl Wickman, that
his buses, painted gray to hide road dirt, looked like a greyhound streaking down the
highway did he change the name of his bus company and his logo. Then Wickman took
on the slogan "Ride the Greyhound" (Dotz & Morton, 1996).
The Wolverine Shoe Company used the bassett hound to advertise its quiet shoes.
Hush Puppies. This term originated from the southern food of fried commeal biscuits.
11
called "hush puppies," because originally these biscuits were given to dogs to keep them
quiet during dinner (Dotz & Morton, 1996).
Other dogs have made their mark in advertising history: Axekod made his mark
for Flying A gasoline service stations in the mid-1960s; Stopper was used for American
Brakeblok safety linings in the 1970s; Barking Cough Dog was used in the 1970s for
Naldecon-CX cough symp; Fetch and T-bone were dogs used to advertise Fetch dog food
and T-bone dog biscuits in the early 1960s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). These are just a few
historical dogs used in dozens of commercials over the years.
Other animals which have been popular are cows, penguins, tigers, pigs, and
birds. Several comical cows have become famous over the years. These include: Elmer,
for Ehner's Glue-All in the late 1960s; Elsie, for Borden dairy products in the 1970s;
Tillie from Tillamook, for Tillamook cheese in 1958; and Nestle's Cow (German) for
Nestle's Quik chocolate drink mix in the 1970s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). The American
branch of Nestle's used the Nestle's Rabbit for the same product. Penguins were used for
Kool cigarettes in the late 1950s and Munsingwear men's apparel and underwear in the
early 1950s. The Electro lux Tiger was used for Electro lux vacuum cleaners in the mid1960s. Jordan's Pig was used for Jordan's ready-to-eat meats in the late 1930s (Dotz &
Morton, 1996).
Some birds which have been used in the early years are Chicken Dehght, for
Chicken Delight take-out restaurants in the mid-1960s; Varig Bird (Brazil) for Varig
Airlines in the 1970s; and Wise-Buy Owl was used by Ward's Riverside tires also in the
1970s (Dotz & Morton, 1996). Newer ads with animals which have been introduced to
the consumer are: Raid Bug, for Raid insecticide in the 1980s; Energizer Bunny, for
12
Energizer batteries, introduced in 1991; Spuds MacKenzie, for Bud Light Beer in 1989;
and Joe Camel, for Camel Cigarettes in 1991.
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) studied advertisements containing
animals. Their three points of interest in the study were the types of animals which
appeared, the product advertised and if the animal presented anthropomorphism.
They foimd the four most used animals were dogs, cats, horses and birds. It was
found that ads did associate animals with specific product categories, as had been
predicted. Durable and non-durable products used the dog the most. The horse was used
most often with alcohol/tobacco products. Dogs and horses were used most often with
durable products.
It was also found in this study that anthropomorphic animals were found most
often with non-durable products, such as pet foods and services. Animals in their natural
state were found most often with liquor products. Wild animals were shown most often
with service products. Between durable and non-durable products, wild animals w ere
most frequently shown with durable products.
Comparing wUd animals with domestic animals in ads, it was discovered that w ild
animals were shown more with anthropomorphic features than domestic animals.
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) also studied humans and their
appearance in the ads with the animals. Humans were foimd to appear with the animals
in ads for durable and non-durable products. Alcohol/tobacco products ads showed
humans with animals the least.
A category also examined by Spears, Mowen, and Chakrabort) was whether the
animal was controlled. The previous study defmed the controlled categor\ as an animal
13
"on a leash or in a cage" (p. 91). When the animals were shown to be controlled in the
ads, they were most commonly dogs or horses. Also, dogs and horses were more
regularly shown with humans, as were domesticated animals on the whole.
Kleppner's Advertising Spiral
The content of an advertisement varies by the advertising spiral stage of the
product. Kleppner noticed three stages of advertisements, naming them pioneering,
competitive, and retentive. The definitions of the stages are:
1. Pioneering stage:
"The advertising stage of a product in which the need for such product is not
recognized and must be established or in which the need has been established but
the success of a commodity in filling those requirements has to be established."
2. Competitive stage:
"The advertising stage a product reaches when its general usefubess is
recognized but its superiority over similar brands has to be established in order to
gain preference."
3. Retentive stage:
"The advertising stage of a product, reached when its general usefulness is widely
known, its individual quahties are thoroughly appreciated, and it is satisfied to
retain its patronage merely on the strength of its past reputation" (Russell and
Lane, 1992, p. 56-60).
All of the stages can repeat themselves, in that order, to form the advertising spiral.
14
The ad in the pioneering stage is an introduction to a new product. The ad is
usually full of informative copy with appropriate pictures illustrating the text. This stage
tries to educate the audience about the product. Interplak came out with a new electric
toothbmsh in the late 1980s. Their pioneering ads had several paragraphs of text, with
the headUne, "Announcing the most dramatic development in home dental care since the
invention of the toothbmsh." The ad also shows three small sketches, positioned in the
center of the ad, of the bmsh at work bmshing teeth. The right side of the ad has a
picture of the Interplak consuming almost the whole page (Russell & Lane, 1992).
The competitive stage ad is used when the consumer generally knows the product
category and that there are other competitive products or services on the market. These
competitive stage ads will compare the product to its competitors, but not necessarily by
name. An example of the competitive stage ad is one for P-I-E Traderoute. A two-page
ad, the left page features a picture of a deserted crate tumed upside down standing alone
on a pier, looking weathered. The right page has large bold print, proclaiming: "Sure,
Other Freight Companies Get You To Europe. But Then What?" This is followed b> a
small paragraph of small text telling of P-I-E Traderoute's services (Russell & Lane,
1992).
Retentive stage ads are reminding the consumers of their well-known product.
This stage is to keep the advertiser's customers focused on the brand name. This type of
ad is commonly used in mainstream products such as soft drinks and fast food
restaurants. An example of this would be an ad that is simple, such as one used bv
Reebok. This one page ad has a colorful view of hot air balloons from the inside of one
of the balloons, with feet sticking out of the basket wearing Reebok shoes. Below the
15
picture, in the middle of the page, are the words "The Shoe Fits." At the bottom of the ad
the Reebok symbol appears (Russell & Lane, 1992).
Kleppner's Advertising Spiral will be used as a basis for the study. Kleppner
states, "there are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the competitive stage.
Products in the retentive stage usually get the least amount of advertising. This stage,
however, represents a critical moment in the life cycle of a product, when important
management decisions must be made" (Russell & Lane, 1992, p. 61). Kleppner's
statement will be tested as to whether or not it holds tme for animals in magazine
advertisements, or if the stages of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral are found to be in a
different ranking order.
The Svmbolic Communications Model
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) developed the symbolic communications
model (SCM) as a framework for understanding animals in advertisements and their
symbolic fiinction (see Figure 1).
The product meaning bundle is the connection of the animal with the product.
The meaning is transferred to the product by building associative linkages between the
product and the symbol. Gestalt psychology is used to recognize this association.
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "the cuhurally constituted world
is composed of a variety of entities, including animals that can be given symboUc
meaning by people in a culture. These symbols and their meanings are appropriated and
linked to products via Gestah processes of unit formation creation. These messages are
then communicated by the media to consumers" (p. 88). The authors also stated,
16
"According to Gestah psychologists, unit connections are built in a variety of ways,
including similarity, interaction, proximity, familiarity and ownership" (p. 89).
Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the ways in which we interpret images in
two-dimensional spaces, such as the images that appear on the pages of a book.
Hilgard, Atkinson, and Atkinson (1975) stated, "The whole is different from the sum of
its parts - a favorite phrase of Gestalt psychologists" (p. 130).
Bmce and Green (1990) acknowledged Gestah psychology has five laws of
organization. These are principles of perceptual organization, whether it is grouping of
sub-regions of figures or separation of figures from the ground. The five laws are
proximity, similarity, common fate (interaction), good continuation (famiharity) and
closure (ownership). As the majority of Gestah psychology research was done by
German psychologists, some of the words are translated differently when they are
translated into English. Therefore, the five laws do not appear in every study under the
same exact heading.
Bmce and Green (1990) stated, "One of the most important factors determining
the perceptual organization of a scene is proximity of the elements with it" (p. 110). The
idea of this law is items that are close together are grouped together. According to Rubin
and McNeil (1985), "This tendency to view objects in terms of the proximity of their
elements is relied on in printed photographs, comic book panels, and television pictures,
which are all actually arrays of dots or lines that we perceive as shapes and objects"
(p. 116).
Similarity is the straightforward idea of "things which look similar are grouped
together" (Bruce & Green, 1990. p.l 10). The human mind organizes items in condition
17
of their similarity to one another. Gestah principles highlight the strong predisposition
for people to give our perceptions a total stmcture (Rubin & McNeil, 1985, p. 116).
Common fate is the idea of "things which appear to move together are grouped
together" (Bmce & Green, 1990, p. 111). An example of this is how a wild animal can
stay camouflaged in hs surroimdings. However, if the animal moves then h is easier to
observe.
Hochberrg (1998) stated, "Good continuation refers to the observation that we
organize our perceptions so as to preserve unbroken contours" ( p. 261). How a person
will put broken individual pieces into a shape by combining them visually is an example
of good continuation.
Closure is the perceptual organization of seeing figures as closed rather than open
(Bmce & Green, 1990, p. 112). An example of this is when dots are laid on paper. A
person will see them as representing a particular figure. The ends of the pattem seen will
be coimected in the human mind, making a shape. "We are mentally primed to fill in the
gaps and to see h as a complete figure" (Rubin & McNeil, 1985, p. 116).
The SCM uses the five laws of Gestah psychology to help understand the product
meaning bundle and how it is Unked between the product and symbol. The SCM shows
that nothing has cuUural meaning until humans assign a meaning to the item. Humans
make animals relevant to peoples' existence. By this process, the animals take on
symbolic significance of meaning (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996).
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "Advertisers attempt to create a
product meaning bundle by associating the animal symbol with the product. Meaning is
18
transferred to the product by building associative linkages between the product and the
symbol" (p. 89). This refers to the Gestah law of proximity.
The meaning of symbols can change over time and the authors of the SCM were
aware of this process. When changing meanings of symbols, the meaning of products
may change, also changing the cuhural meaning. This is a change of which the advertiser
needs to be aware. Gender roles or cuhural beliefs might change, shifting the entire
society. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "For example, Marlboro
cigarettes have moved from bemg a woman's cigarette to a symbol of independence and
masculinity" (p. 89).
Advertisers associate the animal with its symbohc meaning which arises from the
cuhurally constituted world (CCW) with the product. By assigning a CCW meaning of
the product, the advertiser estabhshes a message between a cuhure and the product
(Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996).
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty's SCM will be used as a guide for this study
and thus resuhs will be compared to the findings of the current study.
19
Cuhurally Constituted World (CCW)
(Repository of Values, Ideas, Behefs, and Meanings)
Deities
I
Mankind
I
Material World
I
I
Natural
Manmade
Appropriation of Symbols
Sender Type
Advertiser
Fashion
Designers
Politicians
Teachers
Animal
w
'••
^ \
1
Communications
System
•
T
fMedia^
Product
V
Receiver
Pro(luct Meanine Bundle
Feedback Via Marketine Research
Figure 1. Symbohc Communications Model (SCM)
(Source: Spears, Mowen & Chakraborty, 1996, p. 89)
20
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
Content analysis allows the examination of animals and their appearance in
magazine advertisements. This is the most appropriate research technique because h
allows for the full examination of the content of each advertisement. It allows for an
orderly, objective and quanthative manner of measuring variables. This study will
investigate the usage of animals in magazine advertisements from January 1998-October
2000 in 99 magazines. It is hoped this study will answer the following research
questions:
RQl: Which animals are used most often with a particular product type?
RQ2: Are the majority of these animal advertisements in a certain stage of
Kleppner's Advertising Spiral?
RQ3: Do the animals in the ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic
characteristics?
These answers to these questions will show how animals ha\ e been used in
magazine ad\ertisements from January 1998-October 2000, what kind of product
companies use animals, and in what manner these animals appear.
Research Question 1:
Which animals are used most often with a particular product category?
Hypotheses:
Hi: There is a relationship between the t\pe of animal and the frequency of its use
in product categories of durable, non-durable, and service.
21
H2: The animal used most will be the dog whh non-durable products.
H3: The animal used the least v ^ be the fish with service products.
It is anticipated the dog will be used most because the dog is known as man's best
friend (Sax, 1992). Non-durable products are products that last, Uke the fiiendship of a
dog. Smce dogs appeal to many people, it would give the impression that they would
appear in most of the ads, in order for the products they are with to appeal to more
consumers. The Gestah law of proximity supports this idea. Fish are thought to have
less association with humans (Sax, 1992); therefore, they should be used less. Service
products are not tangible items, so they would have less connection to humans than
would a durable or non-durable product. Service products are less plausible to have
human identity to them, so using fish with the ad makes the ideas similar in use. Again,
the Gestah law of proximity is used here, but reversed. Since these products and animals
are not seen together, they are not grouped together in a human's mind.
H4: There will be a direct relationship between the type of product or service and
the use of a wild, domestic, or other type of animal.
H5: Domestic animals will be used most with non-durable products.
Non-durable products are thought to be advertised more because they are
purchased more frequently, so these ads would relate to most people (Spears, Mowen, &
Chakraborty, 1996). Domestic animals are those consumers relate to more because the\
are household pets, and are more Ukable than wild animals.
Advertisers have a definite product image they want to portray about their product
by using a particular animal with their ad. The advertiser uses the appropriate svTnbol of
the animal to communicate a desired meaning (Spears, Mowen, & Chakrabort\. 1996).
i-y
Associating a product wdth a group of cuhural meanings not generally associated
with that product category is known as transformational advertising. This idea fits into
the symbohc commimications model. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated,
"For example, the association of the tiger - representing speed and power - with a
breakfast cereal transforms the meaning of the product from one of simply eating
breakfast to one of attaining speed and power" (p. 90).
Research Question 2:
Are the majority of animal advertisements in a certain stage of Kleppner's
Advertising Spiral?
Hypothesis:
H6: When animals are used in ads, there is a relationship between the type of
product advertised (durable, non-durable or service) and its Kleppner's
Advertising Spiral stage.
H7: Non-durable products in the competitive stage will use animals in advertising
most.
Hg: Service products in the retentive stage will use animals in advertising the
least.
Kleppner states, "There are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the
competitive stage. Products in the retentive stage usually get the least amount of
advertising. This stage, however, represents a critical moment in the life cycle of a
product, when important management decisions must be made" (Russell & Lane, 1992. p.
61). This statement by Kleppner will be used as a source for comparison of this stud\ 's
findings. His ideas will be the basis of predicting this particular outcome.
23
Non-durable products are predicted to be advertise more frequently because more
advertising is spent on cheaper products, which consimiers shop for morefrequent1\
(groceries, for example) (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996). Service products are
predicted to be used the least because of the assumption that there are fewer service
products which are advertise because of their hmited target audience (Spears, Mowen. &
Chakraborty, 1996).
Research Question 3:
Do animals in ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic
characteristics?
Hypothesis:
H9: Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will be used more than anthropomorphic
characteristics.
Changing an animal to have anthropomorphic characteristics will affix extra
attention to the advertisement. This can aher the meaning of the animal from its
traditional meaning. Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) stated, "For example, a
new cultural meaning was created by the transformation of a camel to a hip, modem
character by giving h human characteristics in ads for Camel cigarettes" (p. 90).
Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will probably be used the most because of
the connection people might feel with the natural state of the animal. The Gestah law of
similarity explains this situation. Humans come into contact with their own household
animals on a daily basis. They will connect their animals whh the ones that might appear
in magazine ads.
24
A mix of anthropomorphic and nonanthropomorphic characteristics should be rare
to find in one advertisement. The advertisers would not want to cause confusion in the
minds of the consimier as to whether it portrays a negative or positive image with one
animal havmg himian characteristics and the other not. There is no evidence in the
previous study that having a mixture was a problem in coding the ads. Therefore, this
study will assume that it will find few or no ads containing animals with both
anthropomorphic and nonanthropomorphic characteristics.
25
CHAPTER IV
METHODOLOGY
Content analysis was the research method used for this study. It was an effectiv e
methodology used in a similar study: Symbolic Roles ofAnimals in Print Advertising:
Content Analysis and Conceptual Development (Spears, Mowen, & Chakraborty, 1996).
Todd (1990) studied the content of perfume ads m one woman's magazine usmg content
analysis. Todd looked at ads from three years from three different decades, 1962. 1972
and 1982. It was found that perfume advertisers omitted the prices of their product ads
over time. There was also an increase in the representation of women in ads as
independent and "free" over the thirty years. Todd's study is an example of the
successful use of content analysis as a method of research.
The current study involved a content analysis of 400 magazine advertisements
containing animals. This sample size was chosen because of the greater likelihood of
having a sample which would yield statistically significant resuhs. (The previous study
by Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty [1996] used 298 ads.) The ads were obtained from
an assortment of magazines from, January 1998-October 2000. This time period was
selected because more recent data could be collected. A variety of magazines were
searched to collect the sample material. From the spring through the fall of 2000, several
sources were used to collect the ads. These included an undergraduate advertising class
of 175 students, a seventh grade class of 30 students and a variety of other people from
wide age groups. Their instmctions were to collect full-page ads featuring animals from
the given time period from any Ainerican magazine. This method allowed an unlimited
26
selection of magazines which allowed a variety of advertisements to be collected. It
allowed for an ample number of ads to use in the study. Two undergraduate students and
one college graduate coded the advertisements.
There were 11 measures on the coding sheet: the advertisement identification
number; the name of the product; the type of product, using the Nielsen product guide;
whether the product was classified as durable, non-durable or service; the nimiber of
animals appearing in the ad; the type of animal most dominant in the ad; whether the
animal was domestic, wild or other; whether the animal was seen as a photograph or
drawn; whether the animal was seen as anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic; and the
stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral for the ad; and the magazine in which the
advertisement was found. Only full-page advertisements were coded, as it has become a
standard for content analysis studies to examine only this size of ad.
Intercoder rehabihty was important in this study. This system required 100%
intercoder agreement. This was achieved by having the coders discuss questions and
reach an agreement on each question. They also were given a description sheet
(Appendbc B) defining all the measures. Using a description sheet as a reference was a
way to reduce questions and have better understanding of what was being studied. It was
important to document that the collected data was accurate and that the resuhs of the test
can be seen as tme, whhout any questions about accuracy.
All of these measures allowed for comparison within the categories. The most
important findings were which of the Kleppner's Advertising Spiral are used the most
with animals, and what type of product (using the Nielsen product categories) the animal
was used to advertise.
27
The chi-square test for differences and the Goodman's and Kmskal's Lambda
were performed on all the test resuhs. Descriptive statistics and the contingency tables
were also examined.
Coding Sheet Definitions
Included with the codmg sheets for the coders was a description sheet which gave
definitions for all of the measures and categories. The first task was to write down the
advertisement identification number that the ad was assigned before coding began. This
allowed for easy identification if the ad needed to be examined at a later time.
The name of the product being advertised in the magazine ad was written in the
space provided for measure two. For measure three, a check was put by the appropriate
Nielsen product category. Nielsen is the largest research company in the world, with vast
experience in collecting research data (http://www.nielsenmedia.com/). This hst was
composed of 42 categories containing all possible product types. These 42 categories
were reduced to five broad product categories: technology, people, food, house supphes
and pet supphes. Technology products include products invented by science. These
products ranged from automobiles to computer software. People products are goods
specifically used by people. These include personal hygiene products, jewelry and
apparel. The food category consists of items consimied by people. Distilled spirits,
cereals and candy were products that are included in this category. House supphes are
items used in a household. Furnishings, stationery and garden care are a few hsted in this
category. Pet supphes are items bought to be used for pet animals. Dog food, pest
repellent and cat litter were included in this category.
28
Measure four determined which type of product was advertised. A check was put
by which type of product apphed to the advertisement. This included the categories of
durable (products capable of whhstanding wear or decay such as furniture and cars); nondurable (products which cannot withstand wear or decay such as food/alcohol, tobacco
and pet food); and service (work done for others as an occupation or business such as
United Parcel Service, mechanic and dot com companies).
Measure five counted how many animal species are seen in the advertisement.
The type of animal was written in the space provided for measure six. In measure seven
the animals were reduced to three categories: domestic (i.e., dog, cat, fish, tamed horse),
wild (i.e., cheetah, elephant), or other (i.e., puppet, unable to tell).
The animal was recorded as ehher drawn or a photograph for measure eight.
Measure nine recorded if the animal appeared in an anthropomorphic state (having
human characteristics or imitating a human) or a nonanthropomorphic state (not having
human characteristics or imitating a human).
Measure ten recorded which stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral the
advertisement represents. These stages were pioneering, competitive and retentive.
The final measure was the name of the magazine from which the advertisement
came.
29
CHAPTER V
RESULTS
A total of 400 advertisements containing animals were examined. No
dupUcations were used in the coding process because the content of each animal
advertisement was the focus of the study and not the effects of repethion of the
advertisement.
By looking at the descriptive statistics and then at the mode (see Table I). the
following conclusions were made.
•
The animal used most was the dog (32.25%).
•
There were more non-durable products than durable and service (42.50%).
•
Domestic animals were shown more often than wild animals (62.25%).
•
The majorhy of the ads were seen in Kleppner's retentive stage of the advertising
spiral (39.00%).
•
Animals were used to advertise more people products than any other product
(30.50%).
•
More photographs were used than drawings in the advertisements (88.00%).
•
The majority of the animals had nonanthropomorphic characteristics (92.25%).
As shown in Table 1, the mixed category of animals (consisting of 30 animals) was used
the most. The least used animal was the fish (other than those animals grouped under the
category of inixed). The type of product used most in animal ads was non-durable.
30
Durable products were close in frequency use to that of service products, with durable
being the least to use animals.
The frequency distribution data for the kind of animal shows the most used kind
of animal was domestic (for example, dog, cat). Wild (for example, cheetah, elephant)
and other followed in frequency, respectively.
The distribution of the data frequency for Kleppner's Advertising Spiral shows
the retentive stage was most used with advertisements containing animals. The
pioneering and the compethive stage were ahnost used in the same amount.
The remainder of the collected data was revealing. The distribution of the data
frequencies for Nielsen's Product Categories, Photograph/Drawn, Anthropomorphic/
Nonanthropomorphic shows the most products advertised with the most animals were
people products. Pet supplies and technology products were second most used, whh one
frequency number difference. Photographed animals were used abundantly more than
drawn animals in advertisements. Anthropomorphic animals were used in advertisements
remarkably more often than nonanthropomorphic animals.
Research Question 1: Which animals are used most often with a particular product
category?
Animals appearing in lesser numbers were grouped as a mixture; this category
accounted for the majority of animal usage for durable, non-durable, service. When
deleting the mixture category, a relationship is stiU foimd between animals used in
product categories (see Table 3).
31
The chi-square test for differences was performed on all data. For type of product
by type of animal, the resuhs indicate significant differences between durable, nondurable and service products with types of animals (X^ =24.86; dF=8; p=.001; see Table
2).
Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship between the type of animal and the
frequency of its use m product categories of durable, non-durable, and service.
Hypothesis 1 was accepted. As seen m both Table 2 and Table 3. a statistically
significant diff'erences were foimd between type of animal used and product type.
By looking at Table 2, the following was found to be prevalent whh the type of
animal and product categories: the dog with non-durable (44.96%); the bird (51.35%). the
fish (42.85%), the horse (44.18%) with service; the mixed category whh non-durable
(45.40%).
H2: The animal used most will be the dog whh non-durable products.
Table 3 shows H2 to be tme; the animal used most was the dog whh non-durable products
(X'=21.78;dF=8;p=.001).
H3: The animal used the least will be the fish whh service products.
Table 3 also shows fish are lesser used, and were used less in service product ads.
H3 was accepted (X^ =21.78; dF=8; p=.001).
Hypothesis 4: There will be a direct relationship between the type of product or
service and the use of a wild, domestic, or other type of animal.
Table 4 shows durable, non-durable and service all used domestic animals most.
Hypothesis 4 was accepted (X^ =17.68; dF=2; p=.0001).
H5: Domestic arumals will be used most whh non-durable products.
32
Table 4 shows non-durable products used domestic animals more. Hypothesis 5
was accepted (X^ =17.68; dF=2; p=.0001).
The domestic aiumal was found whh non-durable products at 48.99%. The wild
animal was found whh service at 40.31%.
Research Question 2: Are the majority of these animal advertisements in a
certain stage of Kleppner's Advertising Spiral?
By looking at Table 5, the resuhs mdicate significant differences between
durable/non-durable/ service products by Kleppner's Advertismg Sphal. Most of the ads
using animals were found to be m the retentive stage (156 (39%)).
Hypothesis 6: When animals are used m ads, there will be a relationship between
the type of product advertised (durable, non-durable or service) and hs Kleppner's
Advertising Spiral stage.
Table 5 shows statistically significant differences between the type of product
using animals m ads and Kleppner's Advertismg Sphal. Durable and non-durable appear
most in the retentive stage; service appears most m the compethive stage. Hypothesis 6
was accepted (X^=13.11; dF=4; p=.0l0).
H7: Non-durable products m the compethive stage wiU use animals m advertismg
most.
Non-durable, retentive stage products used animals the most (18.75%) of the total
ads. H7 was not accepted (X^ =13.11; dF=4; p=.0l0; see Table 5).
Hg: Service products m the retentive stage wiU use arumals m advertismg the
least.
33
Lookmg at Table 5, only 7.75% of the total ads with arumals were m the retentive
stage with service products. Therefore, Hg was accepted (X^ =13.11; dF=4; p=.010).
Research Question 3:
Do animals in ads contain anthropomorphic or nonanthropomorphic
characteristics?
Table I shows 7.75% m the anthropomorphic stage and 92.25% m the
nonanthropomorphic stage.
Hypothesis 9: Nonanthropomorphic characteristics will be used more than
anthropomorphic characteristics.
The majority of the ads contam animals that use nonanthropomorphic
characteristics, acceptmg Hypothesis 9. Further testmg was not requked.
34
Table 1: Frequency of Variables
Value
Type of Animal
Dog
Bird
Fish
Horse
Mixed
Frequency
Percent
Total
129
37
28
43
163
400
32.25
9.25
7.00
10.75
40.75
100
Type of PrcxJuct
Durable
Non-Durable
Service
Total
114
170
116
400
28.50
42.50
29.00
100
Kind of Animal
Domestic
Wild
Other/Mix
Total
249
129
22
400
62.25
32.25
5.50
100
Kleppner's Advertising Spiral
Pioneering
Competitive
Retentive
Total
123
121
156
400
30.75
30.25
39.00
100
Nielsen's Product Categories
People Products
Pet Supplies
Technology Products
House Supplies
Fcx)d
Total
122
87
86
67
38
400
30.50
21.75
21.50
16.75
9.50
100
Photograph/Drawn
Photograph
Drawn
Total
352
48
400
88.00
12.00
100
Anthropomorphic/Nonanthropomorphic
Anthropomorphic
31
Nonanthropomorphic
369
Total
400
7.75
92.25
100
35
Table 2: Animal Use by PrcxJuct Type
Durable Non-Durable Service
Dog
Bird
Fish
Horse
Mixed
Total
Total
129
46
35.65
40.35
4.50
58
44.96
34.11
14.50
25
19.37
21.55
6.25
6
16.21
5.26
1.50
12
32.43
7.05
3.00
19
51.35
16.37
4.75
6
21.42
5.26
1.50
10
35.71
5.88
2.50
12
42.85
10.34
3.00
8
18.60
7.02
2.00
16
37.20
9.41
4.00
19
44.18
16.37
4.75
48
29.44
42.10
12.00
74
45.40
43.53
18.50
41
25.15
35.34
10.25
40.75
114
28.50
170
42.50
116
29.00
400
100
32.25
37
9.25
28
7.00
43
10.75
163
Note: Chi-Square = 24.86; dF = 8; p = .001
Cell Legend: Number Observed
% in Row
% in Column
% of Total Sample
36
Table 3: Animal Use by Product Type (no mixed category)
Durable
Dog
Bird
Fish
Horse
Total
Non-Durable Service
Total
46
35.65
69.7
19.41
58
44.96
60.42
24.47
25
19.37
33.33
10.55
6
16.21
9.09
2.53
12
32.43
12.50
5.06
19
51.35
25.33
8.02
6
21.42
9.09
2.53
10
35.71
10.42
4.22
12
42.85
16.00
5.06
8
18.60
12.12
3.37
16
37.20
16.66
6.75
19
44.18
25.33
8.02
18.14
66
27.85
96
40.51
75
31.64
237
100
129
54.43
37
15.61
28
11.81
43
Note: Chi-Square = 21.78; dF = 6; p = .001
Cell Legend: Number Observed
% in Row
% in Column
% of Total Sample
37
Table 4: Product Type by Animal Portrayed
Durable Non-Durable Service
Domestic
Wild
Total
Total
72
28.92
64.86
19.05
122
48.99
76.25
32.28
55
22.09
51.40
14.55
39
30.23
35.14
10.32
38
29.46
23.75
10.05
52
40.31
48.60
13.76
34.13
111
29.37
160
42.32
107
28.31
378
100
249
65.87
129
Note: Chi-Square = 17.68; dF = 2; p = .0001
Cell Legend: Number Observed
% in Row
% in Column
% of Total Sample
38
Table 5; PrcxJuct Type by Kleppner's Advertising Spiral
Durable
Non-Durable Service Total
Pioneering
34
27.64
29.82
8.50
52
42.28
30.59
13.00
37
123
30.08
31.90
9.25 30.75
Competitive
30
24.79
26.32
7.50
43
35.54
25.29
10.75
121
48
39.67
41.38
12.00 30.25
Retentive
50
32.05
43.86
12.50
75
48.08
44.12
18.75
31
156
19.87
26.72
7.75 39.00
Total
114
28.50
170
42.50
116
29.00
Note: Chi-Square = 13.11; dF = 4; p = .010
Cell Legend: Number Observed
% in Row
% in Column
% of Total Sample
39
400
100
CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION
Analysis
Kleppner states, 'there are fewer products in the pioneering stage than in the
compethive stage. Products in the retentive stage usuaUy get the least amount of
advertising. This stage, however, represents a critical moment m the life cycle of a
product, when hnportant management decisions must be made'" (Russell & Lane. 1992, p.
61). The current study found that when ammals were used m magazme advertisements
Kleppner's statement is false. The ads whh animals were found to be most used m the
retentive stage. The second most-used stage was found to be the pioneermg stage, m line
whh Kleppner. The stage used least whh animal ads was the compethive stage, the
opposhe of Kleppner's analysis of all ads. Kleppner stated most ads were m the
compethive stage.
Retentive stage ads remind the consumers of weU-known products. This stage
keeps the advertiser's customers focused on the brand. This stage might be used the most
whh ads for products featurmg arumals because animals are memorable creatures.
In comparmg the previous study of Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) whh
the current study, the two studies tested different areas but also tested some sunilar areas
which can be compared. Of the areas compared, h was found that there are some sunilar
findmgs. Their three pomts of mterest m the study were the types of arumals which
appeared, the product advertised, and if the arumal was presented anthropomorphically.
40
Spears, Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) foimd the four most used animals were
dogs, cats, horses and bu-ds. The current study supports theh findmgs. Dogs, horses and
bu-ds were foimd the most m the current study. Fish were also found to account for 7%
of animal ads, but cats were mfi-equently found m the current study.
Durable and non-durable product ads used the dog the most m the Spears,
Mowen, and Chakraborty (1996) study. In the current study, non-durable product ads
used the category of mixed most fi'equently then the dog category. It is unclear whether
or not the previous study had the category of mixed. This is a limitation m comparison.
Dogs and horses were used most often whh durable products m Spears, Mowen,
and Chakraborty (1996) study. In the present study, the mixed category and then dogs
were used the most m the durable category. The current study also agrees whh the
previous study. The most used animal is the dog, as the mixed category is made fi'om
several animals. Horses were second most used, confirming the Spears, Mowen, and
Chakraborty (1996) study.
It was also found m the previous study that anthropomorphic animals were found
most often whh non-durable products, such as pet foods and services. This was also
found m the current study, along whh nonanthropomorphic bemg used the most whh
non-durable products.
Wild animals were shown most often whh service products m the Spears, Mowen,
and Chakraborty (1996) study. Also, between durable and non-durable products, v\ ild
arumals were most fi'equently shown whh durable products m the previous study. In the
current study h was also found that wild aiumals were shown most often v\ith service
products, then whh durable products, but closely followed by non-durable. There was
41
only one ad difference between the durable and the non-durable product categories.
These findings could be because wild animals can be seen as powerful. Associating
power whh a service company could unply that they are a strong, well-built busmess.
The Gestah psychology law of proximity supports the idea of associatmg the animal with
a busmess to get a complete idea, groupmg the two hnages together.
In the previous study, the crossing of wild animals whh domestic revealed that
wild animals were shown more whh anthropomorphic features than domestic animals.
The total opposhe was found to be true m the current study. The current study found that
wild animals were shown 119 tunes whh nonanthropomorphic features, and only 10
tunes whh anthropomorphic characteristics. This difference could be explamed because
the previous study's codmg definitions were unreported. The definitions of the terms
anthropomorphic, nonanthropomorphic, domestic and wild might have mcluded different
terminology. The previous study also tested whether the animal was controlled, and if a
human appeared along whh the animal m the ad. Controlled could have meant wild
animals wearmg a collar or ribbon/bow and therefore considered domestic. This
measure, along whh other factors m the previous study, was not tested m the current
study, and could be an explanation for the extreme difference m the resuhs.
It was shown m the SCM model that there were a variety of different cuhural
creatures which could be given different symbohc connotations. These animals and theh
meanuigs were then connected to different products, comprismg the product meanmg
bundle, and then formed mto advertisements to target the consumer. The animal was
then associated whh the product, and the symbolic meanmg of the anunal transferred to
42
the product. This was shown in the previous study. Symbohc meaning was not
measured m the current study.
It is hnportant to understand how animals are used m magazme advertisements,
especially if a company is looking for a creative way to market a product. Usmg arumals
is very memorable and animals also have ties to symbohsm. It is smart to choose an
animal which will be used with a product wisely, to know what kmd of anunals other
companies are usmg whh theh goods, and how the arumals are portrayed. This is
associated whh the Gestah psychology sunilarity law. If a certam animal is used with a
particular product, and when the same animal is seen m a different settuig, the origmal
product will be recalled ui the viewer's memory. To be recognized as an unforgettable ad
and to not blend m whh others advertisements, h might be a good idea to be a bh
different. Gestah psychology law of closure supports the idea of hnkmg sunilar products
together. If sunilar products do not have strong visual elements by themselves, then the
human mind wiU close the gap by linking the two together to ha\ e a complete picture,
even if, in reahty, the two are not linked. An example of bemg different would be if there
was a need to advertise a durable product. Smce durable products are least advertised
usmg animals, h could be a good idea to use ammals in an ad for a durable product to
make h more memorable. By lookmg at the collected data (Table 1), the arumal used the
most is the dog. Thus, h might not be a good idea to use an anunal which has been used
widely before. Knowmg what is aheady m use m the advertismg world can be helpful m
trymg to create new, unique advertisements.
43
Lunitations of This Studv and Suggestions for Future Research
This study looked at 400 advertisements. For future research this number could
be mcreased. An uicrease m the number of ads would help to ensure that the chi-square
test would be able to be performed on all of the comparisons because there may be a
larger number m all categories. An extensive amount of tune to collect the ads is
suggested, as h took several months to collect 400 one-page advertisements featuring
animals.
The hmitations of this study mclude that only magazme advertisements were
reviewed. Other print media were not examined; this might have changed the resuhs.
Another limitation is that only American magazmes were used for the collection of the
advertisements. By reviewing other countries' magazmes and understandmg theh cuhure
and symbolism with animals, the resuhs may vary significantly. This difference may be
more significant if a non-western cuhure is examined. Also, the ads were coUected m
one geographical section of the country which may or may not have had an unpact on the
sample.
For future studies, consumer product and animal recaU could also be examined.
This would show if the animals m the advertisements were as memorable as advertisers
want theh ads to be and communicate the deshed symbohsm. It would be mterestmg to
compare magazme advertisements featuring animals to that of television advertisements.
Anthropomorphism might occur more whh the use of video, as it might capture more
viewer attention.
44
Hypotheses Lunitations
There were hmitations found m ruimmg the data whh chi-square tests for
Hypotheses 1 through 5. Hypotheses 6 through 9 were not found to have such
limitations.
Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 test resuhs (Table I) were hmited to five animal
categories. The other animals found were grouped mto the category of mixed. This is
because when compared to the product categories of durable, non-durable and service,
the animals numbering less than five m any ceU had to be grouped whh the mixed
category m order for the chi-square test to be run. There were 30 different types of
animals included m the mixed category. The most frequently used animals grouped mto
the mixed category were the cat (33 ads) and the cow (21 ads). The abundance of cow
ads could be due to the geographical area m which the data was coUected (West Texas),
and the large amount of agricuhural hterature available (10 magazmes whh 31 ads).
Hypotheses 4 and 5 test resuhs (Table 2) were hmited to 378 ads, not 400. This is
because, agam, less than five ads were found m the categories of other and mixed, which
comprised only 2% and 1% of the total respectively. Therefore, these categories were
removed because the Chi-square test could not be performed on categories whh such
smaU numbers.
45
REFERENCES
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Bruce, V. & Green, P.R. (1990) Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology.
East Sussex, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates, Pubhshers.
Dotz, W. & Morton, J. (1996). What a Character: 2(f^ Century American Advertising
Icons. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.
Hilgard, E.R., Atkmson, R.C. & Atkmson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to Psychology, 6'''
Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Mercatante, A.S. (1974). Zoo of the Gods. New York: Harper & Row, Pubhshers. Inc.
MhcheU, R.W., Thompson, N.S., & Miles, H.L. (1997). Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes,
and Animals. Albany: State Univershy of New York Press.
Nielsen Media, http://www.nielsenmedia.com/
Reuter. (1997, July 10). Joe Camel Makes an Exit: RJ Reynolds to replaces controversial
Camel whh standard trademark camel. Wmston-Salem, N.C.
Rook, D.W. (1999). Brands, Consumers, Symbols & Research: Sydney Levy on
Marketing. London: Sage Pubhcations, Inc.
Rubui, Z. & McNeil, E.B. (1985) Psychology: Being Human. New York: Harper & Row,
Pubhshers.
RusseU. J.T. & Lane, W.R. (1992). Kleppner's Advertising Procedure, 11'^ Edition.
Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice HaU.
RusseU, J.T. & Lane, W.R. (1993). Kleppner's Advertising Procedure, 12'^ Edition.
Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice HaU.
Sax, B. (1990). The Frog King: On Legends, Fables, Fairy Tales and Anecdotes of
Animals. New York: Pace Univershy Press.
Sax, B. (1992). The Parliament of Animals: Anecdotes and Legends from Books of
Natural History 1775-1900. New York: Pace University Press.
SivuUca, J. (1998). Soap, Sex and Cigarettes: A Cultural History of American
Advertising. Behnont. CA: Wadsworth Publishmg Company.
46
Spears, N.E., Mowen, J.C. & Chakraborty, G. (1996). Symbohc Role of Anunals m Print
Advertismg: Content Analysis and Conceptual Development. Journal of Business
Research, 37, 87-95.
Todd, V. (1990). Content Analysis of Motivational Need Appeals in Perfume
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Webster's U New College Dictionary. (1995). Boston: Houghton Miffhn Company.
47
APPENDIX A
ANIMALS IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS CODING SHEET
48
Arumals m Magazine Advertisements
Codmg Sheet
1. Advertisement Identification
7. Kind of anunal: (most dominant)
Number
1. Domestic
2. WUd
2. Name of product advertised:
_
3. Other
(write m space)
8. Is the animal: (most dominant)
1. Photograph:
3. Nielsen's Product Category:
2. Drawn:
( s e e p a g e 2 — write corresponding number)
9. Is the animal: (most dommant)
1. Anthropomorphic
4. Type of product:
_
2. Nonanthropomorphic
1. Durable
2. Non-durable
10. Kleppner's lifecycle stage:
3. Service
1. Pioneermg
5. Number of animal species m the
2. Compethive
picture:
1.
2.
3. Retentive
_
3- Z
4.
5.
11. What magazme did the ad come
from?
_
_
(wrhe m space)
6. Type of anunal: (most dominant)
(wrhe m space)
49
APPENDIX B
CODING SHEET DEFINITIONS
50
Codmg Sheet Definitions
1. Record the number which is written on the advertisement on the space provided.
2. Name of the product that is beuig advertised m the prmt ad should be written m the
space provided.
3. Write which Nielsen product category the product advertised fits under by lookmg at
the hst of Nielsen product categories.
4. Check which apphes to the ad.
Durable: Products capable of withstanding wear or decay, (ex. furniture, cars)
Non-Durable: Products that cannot withstand wear or decay, (ex. food, alcohol,
tobacco, pet food)
Service: Work done for others as an occupation or busmess. (ex. UPS, mechanic, dot
com company)
5. Check how many anunals appear m the advertisement.
6. Write m the space provided.
Animal type (ex. dog, cat, horse)
When more than one animal is shown, record the most dominant animal m the ad.
7. Check which apphes to the ad.
Kind of animal:
Domestic (ex. dog, cat, fish, tamed horse)
Wild (ex. cheetah, elephant)
Other (ex. puppet)
51
8. Check which apphes to the ad.
Photograph: an arumal which looks Uke a photograph has been taken of h
Drawn: an animal which has been drawn by hand or computer (hne art)
Other: (ex. puppet)
9. Check which apphes to the ad.
Anthropomorphic: having human characteristics, or unitatmg a human
Nonanthropomorphic: NOT havmg human characteristics, or imitatmg a human
10. Kleppner's Advertising Sphal: (Check which apphes to the ad.)
Pioneering stage:
"The advertismg stage of a product m which the need for such product is not
recognized and must be estabhshed or m which the need has been estabhshed but the
success of a commodhy mfiUmgthose requirements has to be estabhshed."
Competitive stage:
"The advertismg stage a product reaches when hs general useflihiess is recognized
but its superiority over sunUar brands has to be estabhshed m order to gam
preference."
Retentive stage:
"The advertising stage of a product, reached when hs general useflihiess is widely
known, hs mdividual quahties are thoroughly appreciated, and h is satisfied to retam
hs patronage merely on the strength of hs past reputation."
11. Write m which magazine the advertisement came from. This may be found wrhten
on the back of the page of the advertisement.
52
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