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Learning, Memory, Language
and Emotion
LISELOTTE MAUREX
KAROLINSKA INSTITUTET
DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL
NEUROSCIENCE
DIVISION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychological processes
Cognition
Emotion
Behavior
Information processing
Basic/universal
Everything we do
Thinking – to know,
understand, remember,
communicate
Anger
Guided by emotion and
cognition
Adaptive, complex,
flexible, goal directed
behavior
Fear
Attention
Happiness
Learning
Sadness
Memory
Disgust
Perception
Surprise
Language
Complex Culturally/socially
influenced
Executive functions
e.g. shame, regret, envy
www.memeticians.com/science/intelligence
Learning and Memory
Learning
y Learning: the
acquisition of new
information
y Memory: the result of
learning – a relatively
permanent change in
an organism’s
behavior due to
experience
www.macalester.edu/.../Audition/site/memory.gif
www.thought-detective.com/how-to-learn-a-skill
How do we learn?
Classical Conditioning
y It was the Russian
y We learn by
association. Our
minds naturally
connect events that
occur in sequence
Ivan Pavlov (1849‐1936)
physiologist Ivan Pavlov
who elucidated classical
conditioning
y His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like
John Watson and B. F.
Skinner
Pavlov´s experiments
y Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US)
produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).
However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not
Acquisition
Pavlov´s experiments
y During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US
(food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After
conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned
Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned
Response, CR)
Train Pavlov´s dog!
y Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning in
which an association between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral
stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus
2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a
second
y http://nobelprize.org/edu
cational/medicine/pavlov/
index.html
http://graulab.tamu.edu/J-Grau/Psyc340/Figures/PavlCond-Pavlov%27s%20dog.jpeg
Extinction
y When the US (food) does
not follow the CS (tone),
CR (salivation) begins to
decrease and eventually
causes extinction
Generalization
Operant conditioning
y Skinner’s experiments
y Tendency to respond
extend Thorndike’s
thinking, especially his law
of effect (1911). This law
states that rewarded
behavior is likely to occur
again.
to stimuli similar to the
CS is called
generalization
B.F Skinner 1904-1990
http://www.scottsdalecc.edu/ricker/psy101/readings/section_5/5-11.html
Skinner’s Experiments
y Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner
developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to
study operant conditioning.
Types of Reinforcers
y Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat
lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold.
Punishment
Operant vs Classical Conditioning
Learning by Observation
Imitation Onset
y Higher animals,
especially humans,
learn through
observing and
imitating others
y The monkey on the
right imitates the
monkey on the left in
touching the pictures
in a certain order to
obtain a reward
Meltzoff, A.N & Moore, M.K. (1977) Imitation of Facial and Manual Gestures by Human
Neonates , Science, Vol. 198. no. 4312, pp. 75 – 78
Meltzoff, A.N & Borton, R.W. (1979) Intermodal matching by human neonates , Nature ,
282, pp. 403 - 404
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
Learning disorders
Memory
y What is called learning disabilities is usually about
problems that affect the brain's ability to receive and
process information
{
{
{
{
20
Attention
Language
Reading or writing
Doing math
http://www.looklocally.com/images/media/10580/image-aa-education-tutordallas.jpg?1204920348
Stages of Memory
Memory is many things
y Different processes or stages of memory
{ Encoding
{ Storage
{ Retrieval
y Different time spans
{ Sensory memory
{ Short term memory
{ Long term memory
y Different long term memory systems
{ Declarative memory
{ Non declarative memory
Disk
(Storage)
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Sequential Process
Working Memory
22
Encoding
Inkodning
Ansträngning
Baddeley (2002). In: D. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds) Principles of frontal lobe function, 246-260
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Automatisk
Some information is
automatically
processed
1.
Time
2.
Space
3.
Frequency
However, new or
unusual information
requires attention
and effort
What are we encoding?
Type of encoding influences memory
Rehearsal
BAZ
YOX
VUM
JIH
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850‐1909)
W. W. Norton
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
y In Aplysia (seasnail), Kandel
and Schwartz (1982)
showed that serotonin
release from neurons
increased after conditioning
Synaptic enhancement (plasticity)
y LTP refers to synaptic
enhancement after learning
– a long-lasting strengthening
of synapses in the nervous
system by enhanced
transmissionen between
synapses as a result of
simultaneous stimulation –
more effective signal
transmission
y Supposed to be an important
cellular mechanism for
learning and memory
-Increased activity of existing receptors
-Increased number of receptors
Malenka & Bear (2004) Neuron, 44, 5–21
Hippocampus
Consolidation/storage
y Fast direct process of
stored memories
y Recall - Active retrieval
y Recognition
y Cues – memories are held
in storage by a web of
associations - anchors
that help retrieve memory
– context matters
y ”HM” - After losing his
consolidation –
hippocampus –
”synaptic
consolidation”
y Slower stable
consolidation –
interaction
hippocampus and
cortex – ”system
consolidation”
y Important in daily life
{
{
hippocampus in surgery,
“HM” remembered
everything before the
operation but could not
make new declarative
(explicit) memories
y Anterograde amnesia
y However, HM could form
new procedural (implicit)
memories
Context effects
Retrieval
y Process of accessing
Implicit memory
remembering where you
parked your car
answer exam questions
Scuba divers recall more
words underwater if they
learned the list underwater,
while they recall more
words on land if they
learned that list on land
Godden & Baddeley (1975) British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325-331
”Mood congruent memory”
y We usually recall
experiences that are
consistent with our
current mood
y Emotions, or moods,
serve as retrieval cues
y E.g. state-dependent
memories
Memories are important for planning the future
y Same brain areas
activated when
remembering the past
and when imagining the
future
Schacter DL, Addis DR., Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2007 29;362(1481):773-86.
y Memories as a tool to
imagine the future
y ”Behavioral simulation”
y More alternatives based
on previous experiences
Memory disorders
Language
y Brain damage to areas important for memory
y Alzheimer´s disease
{ Degenerative disorder with a range of cognitive and behavioral
problems
{ Mental activation slows down onset – indicates late plasticity
of the brain
urbanoalvarez.es/.../2008/03/language.jpg
Learning a language
Critical learning period
y Communication of
meaning to others and
ourselves
{ Speak
{ Write
{ Sign
y Children learn their native
languages much before
learning to add 2+2
y We learn, on average
(after age 1), 3,500 words
a year, amassing 60,000
words by the time we
graduate from high school
- 4 months: ”Babbling” – takes
turn in conversation
- 10 months: Babbling similar to
everyday language
- 1 year: One-word sentences
-Två år: Two-word sentences –
”telegraphic speech”
- Language develops rapidly
into complete sentences
(individual differences)
Johnson & Newport (1991) Cognition, 39, 215-258
Language and brain
Genes, Brain, & Language
y Transcranial magnetic
stimulation
David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images
Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc.
Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain
thebrain.mcgill.ca
41
Language disorders
y Dyslexia - developmental language disorder -
Emotion
difficulties with spelling, phonological processing (the
connection of speech sounds to letters), and/or rapid
visual-verbal responding
y Aphasia - acquired disorder of language - disability
to produce speech, to comprehend speech, to
repeat, and/or read words
cercor.oxfordjournals.org/.../coverfig.gif
Function of emotions
Go on!
Theories of emotions
Watch out!
Valence
Intensity
Emotional learning
”Flashbulb memory”
Joseph LeDoux, Sci Am. 1994 Jun;270(6):50-7
http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/OSC/eBookPlayerFiles/Myers/images/1000/Myers8e_4_09UN04.j
Emotions show
“The Expression
of the Emotions
in Man and
Animals”
www.waukesha.uwc.edu/.../diagrams2.html
tpmcafe.talkingpointsmemo.com/.../06/08week/
Universal emotions
”Brain games” on the net
y Memory:
y
y
y
y
Ekman & Matsumoto, Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
http://www.gamesforthebrain.com/swedish/whatwasthe
re/
Language :
http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/grammar/grammar
_tutorial.htm
Emotion:
http://www.do2learn.com/games/facialexpressions/face
.htm
http://www.brainist.com/
http://www.lumosity.com/landing/l_brain_games