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GLOBAL EDITION Essentials of Geology TWELFTH EDITION Frederick K. Lutgens • Edward J. Tarbuck • Illustrated by Dennis Tasa Acquisitions Editor: Andrew Dunaway Head of Learning Asset Acquisition, Global Editions: Laura Dent Acquisition Editor, Global Editions: Priyanka Ahuja Assistant Project Editor, Global Editions: Paromita Banerjee Senior Marketing Manager: Maureen McLaughlin Project Manager: Crissy Dudonis Project Management Team Lead: Gina M. Cheselka Senior Production Manufacturing Controller, Global Editions: Trudy Kimber Executive Development Editor: Jonathan Cheney Director of Development: Jennifer Hart Content Producer: Timothy Hainley Project Manager, Instructor Media: Eddie Lee Media Production Manager, Global Editions: Vikram Kumar Editorial Assistant: Sarah Shefveland Senior Marketing Assistant: Nicola Houston Full Service/Composition: Cenveo® Publisher Services Project Manager, Full Service: Heidi Allgair Photo Manager: Maya Melenchuk Photo Researcher: Kristin Piljay Text Permissions Manager: Alison Bruckner Design Manager: Derek Bacchus Interior Design: Elise Lansdon Design Cover Designer: Lumina Datamatics Photo and Illustration Support: International Mapping Operations Specialist: Christy Hall Cover Image Credit: © Im Perfect Lazybones/Shutterstock Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text or are listed below. Page 24: Quote from Aristotle, translated by Adams, F.D., in The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences, Dover Publications, 1954; Page 25: Quote from James Hutton, Theory of the Earth, 1785; Page 25: Quote from William L. Stokes, Essentials of Earth History, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1973, p. 20; Page 26: Quote from James Hutton, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1788; Page 28: Quote from Jacob Bronowski, The Common Sense of Science, p. 148, Harvard University Press, 1953; Page 29: Quote from F. James Rutherford and Andrew Ahlgren, Science for All Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 7; Page 29: Quote from Speech delivered at Douai on December 7, 1854 on the occasion of his formal inauguration to the Faculty of Letters of Douai and the Faculty of Sciences of Lille), reprinted in: Pasteur Vallery-Radot, ed., Oeuvres de Pasteur (Paris, France: Masson and Co., 1939), vol. 7, page 131; Page 55: Quote from Alfred Wegener, The Origin of Continents and Oceans, translated from the 4th revised German ed. of 1929 by J. Birman (London: Methuen, 1966); Page 56: R. T. Chamberlain, quoted from Hallam, A. (1973) A Revolution in the Earth Sciences. Clarendon Press, Oxford; Page 124: Quote from Lee Green, MD, an associate professor at the University of Michigan Medical School; Page 188: Quote from Jack Eddy, “A Fragile Seam of Dark Blue Light,” in Proceedings of the Global Change Research Forum. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1086, 1993, p. 15; Page 277: Quote from Walter Mooney, a USGS seismologist; Page 371: Quote from Exploration of the Colorado River of the West (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1875), p. 203; Page 435: Quote from J. D. Hays, John Imbrie, and N. J. Shackelton, “Variations in the Earth’s Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages,” Science 194 (1976): 1121–32. p. 1131; Page 453: Quote from R. A. Bagnold, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, 2005; Page 494: Quote from James Hutton, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1805; Page 504: Quote from B. Bryson, A Short History of Nearly Everything (Broadway Books, 2003); Page 563: Quote from IPCC, “Summary for Policy Makers.” In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis; Page 569: Quote from J. T. Overpeck, et al., “Arctic System on Trajectory to New, Seasonally Ice-Free States,” EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86 (34): 309, August 23, 2005; Page 571: National Assessment Synthesis Team, Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change (Washington, DC: U.S. Global Research Program, 2000), p. 19. Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2015 The rights of Frederick K. Lutgens and Edward J. Tarbuck to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Essentials of Geology, 12th Edition, ISBN 978-0-321-94773-4 by Frederick K. Lutgens and Edward J. Tarbuck, published by Pearson Education © 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10: 1-292-05718-1 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-05718-7 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typeset in Minion Pro by Laserwords Private, Ltd Printed and bound by Neografia in Slovakia Essentials of Geology, Global Edition Table of Contents Cover Title Copyright Contents Preface 1 An Introduction to Geology 1.1 Geology: The Science of Earth Physical and Historical Geology Geology, People, and the Environment 1.2 The Development of Geology Catastrophism The Birth of Modern Geology Geology Today The Magnitude of Geologic Time 1.3 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry Hypothesis Theory Scientific Methods Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry 1.4 Earths Spheres Hydrosphere Atmosphere Biosphere Geosphere 1.5 Earth as a System Earth System Science The Earth System 1.6 Early Evolution of Earth Origin of Planet Earth Formation of Earths Layered Structure 1.7 Earths Internal Structure Earths Crust Earths Mantle Earths Core 1.8 Rocks and the Rock Cycle The Basic Cycle Alternative Paths Table of Contents 1.9 The Face of Earth Major Features of the Continents Major Features of the Ocean Floor Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds 2.1 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics 2.2 Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features Evidence: Ancient Climates 2.3 The Great Debate Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis 2.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere Earths Major Plates Plate Boundaries 2.5 Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading Continental Rifting 2.6 Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction OceanicContinental Convergence OceanicOceanic Convergence ContinentalContinental Convergence 2.7 Transform Plate Boundaries 2.8 How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change? The Breakup of Pangaea Plate Tectonics in the Future 2.9 Testing the Plate Tectonics Model Evidence: Ocean Drilling Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots Evidence: Paleomagnetism 2.10 How Is Plate Motion Measured? Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion Measuring Plate Motion from Space 2.11 What Drives Plate Motions? Forces That Drive Plate Motion Models of PlateMantle Convection Concepts in Review Table of Contents Give It Some Thought 3 Matter and Minerals 3.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock Defining a Mineral What Is a Rock? 3.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 3.3 Why Atoms Bond The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move Mineral Strength Density and Specific Gravity Other Properties of Minerals 3.5 Mineral Groups Classifying Minerals Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals 3.6 The Silicates Silicate Structures Joining Silicate Structures 3.7 Common Silicate Minerals The Light Silicates The Dark Silicates 3.8 Important Nonsilicate Minerals 3.9 Minerals: A Nonrenewable Resource Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources Mineral Resources and Ore Deposits Concepts in Review: Give It Some Thought 4 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Activity 4.1 Magma: Parent Material of Igneous Rock The Nature of Magma From Magma to Crystalline Rock Igneous Processes 4.2 Igneous Compositions Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions Other Compositional Groups Table of Contents Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition 4.3 Igneous Textures: What Can They Tell Us? Types of Igneous Textures 4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks Granitic (Felsic) Igneous Rocks Andesitic (Intermediate) Igneous Rocks Basaltic (Mafic) Igneous Rocks Pyroclastic Rocks 4.5 Origin of Magma Generating Magma from Solid Rock 4.6 How Magmas Evolve Bowens Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks Magmatic Differentiation and Crystal Settling Assimilation and Magma Mixing 4.7 Partial Melting and Magma Composition Formation of Basaltic Magma Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas 4.8 Intrusive Igneous Activity Nature of Intrusive Bodies Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths 4.9 Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes Magmatic Segregation and Ore Deposits Hydrothermal Deposits Origin of Diamonds Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 5 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards 5.1 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea 5.2 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions Factors Affecting Viscosity Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions 5.3 Materials Extruded During an Eruption Lava Flows Gases Pyroclastic Materials 5.4 Anatomy of a Volcano 5.5 Shield Volcanoes Mauna Loa: Earths Largest Shield Volcano Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano Table of Contents 5.6 Cinder Cones Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone 5.7 Composite Volcanoes 5.8 Volcanic Hazards Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones Other Volcanic Hazards 5.9 Other Volcanic Landforms Calderas Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus Lava Domes Volcanic Necks and Pipes 5.10 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries Intraplate Volcanism Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 6 Weathering and Soils 6.1 Weathering 6.2 Mechanical Weathering Frost Wedging Salt Crystal Growth Sheeting Biological Activity 6.3 Chemical Weathering Water and Carbonic Acid How Granite Weathers Weathering of Silicate Minerals Spheroidal Weathering 6.4 Rates of Weathering Rock Characteristics Climate Differential Weathering 6.5 Soil An Interface in the Earth System What Is Soil? 6.6 Controls of Soil Formation Parent Material Time Table of Contents Climate Plants and Animals Topography 6.7 The Soil Profile 6.8 Classifying Soils 6.9 The Impact of Human Activities on Soil Clearing the Tropical Rain ForestA Case Study of Human Impact on Soil Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource 6.10 Weathering and Ore Deposits Bauxite Other Deposits Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 7 Sedimentary Rocks 7.1 The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks 7.2 Origins of Sedimentary Rock 7.3 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks Shale Sandstone Conglomerate and Breccia 7.4 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Limestone Dolostone Chert Evaporites 7.5 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock 7.6 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification Diagenesis Lithification 7.7 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 7.8 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments Importance of Sedimentary Environments Sedimentary Facies Sedimentary Structures 7.9 Resources from Sedimentary Rocks Nonmetallic Mineral Resources Energy Resources 7.10 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought Table of Contents 8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks 8.1 What Is Metamorphism? 8.2 What Drives Metamorphism? Heat as a Metamorphic Agent Confining Pressure Differential Stress Chemically Active Fluids The Importance of Parent Rock 8.3 Metamorphic Textures Foliation Foliated Textures Other Metamorphic Textures 8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks Foliated Metamorphic Rocks Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 8.5 Metamorphic Environments Contact or Thermal Metamorphism Hydrothermal Metamorphism Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism Regional Metamorphism Other Metamorphic Environments 8.6 Metamorphic Zones Textural Variations Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 9 Earthquakes and Earths Interior 9.1 What Is an Earthquake? Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes Aftershocks and Foreshocks Faults and Large Earthquakes 9.2 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves Instruments That Record Earthquakes Seismic Waves 9.3 Locating the Source of an Earthquake 9.4 Determining the Size of Earthquakes Intensity Scales Magnitude Scales 9.5 Earthquake Destruction Destruction from Seismic Vibrations Table of Contents Landslides and Ground Subsidence Fire What Is a Tsunami? 9.6 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur? Earthquakes Associated with Plate boundaries Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies 9.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? Short-Range Predictions Long-Range Forecasts 9.8 Earths Interior Formation of Earths Layered Structure Probing Earths Interior: Seeing Seismic Waves 9.9 Earths Layers Crust Mantle Core Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 10 Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor 10.1 An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor Mapping the Seafloor Provinces of the Ocean Floor 10.2 Continental Margins Passive Continental Margins Active Continental Margins 10.3 Features of Deep-Ocean Basins Deep-Ocean Trenches Abyssal Plains Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor Explaining Coral AtollsDarwins Hypothesis 10.4 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge 10.5 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading Seafloor Spreading Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated? Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography 10.6 The Nature of Oceanic Crust How Does Oceanic Crust Form? Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust 10.7 Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin Evolution of an Ocean Basin Table of Contents Failed Rifts 10.8 Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins Concepts In Review Give It Some Thought 11 Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building 11.1 Crustal Deformation What Causes Rocks to Deform? Types of Deformation Factors That Affect Rock Strength 11.2 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation Anticlines and Synclines Domes and Basins Monoclines 11.3 Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation Dip-Slip Faults Strike-Slip Faults Joints 11.4 Mountain Building 11.5 Subduction and Mountain Building Island ArcType Mountain Building Andean-Type Mountain Building Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley 11.6 Collisional Mountain Belts Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions The Himalayas The Appalachians 11.7 What Causes Earths Varied Topography? The Principle of Isostasy How High Is Too High? Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 12 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity 12.1 The Importance of Mass Wasting Landslides as Geologic Hazards The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development Slopes Change Through Time 12.2 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting Table of Contents The Role of Water Oversteepened Slopes Removal of Vegetation Earthquakes as Triggers Landslides Without Triggers? The Potential for Landslides 12.3 Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes Type of Material Type of Motion Rate of Movement 12.4 Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting Rockslide Debris Flow Earthflow 12.5 Slow Movements Creep Solifluction The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 13 Running Water 13.1 Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle 13.2 Running Water Drainage Basins River Systems Drainage Patterns 13.3 Streamflow Factors Affecting Flow Velocity Changes Downstream 13.4 The Work of Running Water Stream Erosion Transport of Sediment by Streams Deposition of Sediment by Streams 13.5 Stream Channels Bedrock Channels Alluvial Channels 13.6 Shaping Stream Valleys Base Level and Graded Streams Valley Deepening Valley Widening Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces Table of Contents 13.7 Depositional Landforms Deltas The Mississippi River Delta Natural Levees Alluvial Fans 13.8 Floods and Flood Control Types of Floods Flood Control Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 14 Groundwater 14.1 The Importance of Groundwater Groundwater and the Hydrosphere Geologic Importance of Groundwater Groundwater: A Basic Resource 14.2 Groundwater and the Water Table Distribution of Groundwater The Water Table 14.3 Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater Porosity Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers 14.4 How Groundwater Moves A Simple Groundwater Flow System Measuring Groundwater Movement Different Scales of Movement 14.5 Wells 14.6 Artesian Systems 14.7 Springs, Hot Springs, and Geysers Springs Hot Springs Geysers 14.8 Environmental Problems Mining Groundwater Subsidence Saltwater Contamination Groundwater Contamination 14.9 The Geologic Work of Groundwater Caverns Karst Topography Concepts in Review Table of Contents Give It Some Thought 15 Glaciers and Glaciation 15.1 Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles Valley (Alpine) Glaciers Ice Sheets Other Types of Glaciers 15.2 Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice Glacial Ice Formation How Glaciers Move Observing and Measuring Movement Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage 15.3 Glacial Erosion How Glaciers Erode Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 15.4 Glacial Deposits Glacial Drift Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames 15.5 Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers Crustal Subsidence and Rebound Sea-Level Changes Changes to Rivers and Valleys Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes Pluvial Lakes 15.6 The Ice Age Development of the Glacial Theory Causes of Ice Ages Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 16 Deserts and Wind 16.1 Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands What Is Meant by Dry? Subtropical Deserts and Steppes Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes 16.2 Geologic Processes in Arid Climates Weathering The Role of Water 16.3 Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape 16.4 Wind Erosion Transportation of Sediment by Wind Table of Contents Erosional Features 16.5 Wind Deposits Sand Deposits Types of Sand Dunes Loess (Silt) Deposits Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 17 Shorelines 17.1 The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface The Coastal Zone Basic Features Beaches 17.2 Ocean Waves Wave Characteristics Circular Orbital Motion Waves in the Surf Zone 17.3 Shoreline Processes Wave Erosion Sand Movement on the Beach 17.4 Shoreline Features Erosional Features Depositional Features The Evolving Shore 17.5 Stabilizing the Shore Hard Stabilization Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 17.6 Contrasting Americas Coasts Atlantic and Gulf Coasts Pacific Coast Coastal Classification 17.7 Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard Profile of a Hurricane Hurricane Destruction 17.8 Tides Causes of Tides Monthly Tidal Cycle Tidal Currents Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 18 Geologic Time Table of Contents 18.1 Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles The Importance of a Time Scale Numerical and Relative Dates Principle of Superposition Principle of Original Horizontality Principle of Lateral Continuity Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships Inclusions Unconformities Applying Relative Dating Principles 18.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life Types of Fossils Conditions Favoring Preservation 18.3 Correlation of Rock Layers Correlation Within Limited Areas Fossils and Correlation 18.4 Dating with Radioactivity Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure Radioactivity Half-Life Using Various Isotopes Dating with Carbon-14 18.5 The Geologic Time Scale Structure of the Time Scale Precambrian Time Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale 18.6 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 19 Earths Evolution Through Geologic Time 19.1 Is Earth Unique? The Right Planet The Right Location The Right Time Viewing Earths History 19.2 Birth of a Planet From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements From Planetesimals to Protoplanets Earths Early Evolution 19.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans Earths Primitive Atmosphere Table of Contents Oxygen in the Atmosphere Evolution of the Oceans 19.4 Precambrian History: The Formation of Earths Continents Earths First Continents The Making of North America Supercontinents of the Precambrian 19.5 Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earths Modern Continents Paleozoic History Mesozoic History Cenozoic History 19.6 Earths First Life Origin of Life Earths First Life: Prokaryotes 19.7 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes Early Paleozoic Life-Forms Vertebrates Move to Land Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates The Great Permian Extinction 19.8 Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky Demise of the Dinosaurs 19.9 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals From Reptiles to Mammals Marsupial and Placental Mammals Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion Large Mammals and Extinction Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought 20 Global Climate Change 20.1 Climate and Geology The Climate System ClimateGeology Connections 20.2 Detecting Climate Change Seafloor SedimentA Storehouse of Climate Data Oxygen Isotope Analysis Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice Tree RingsArchives of Environmental History Other Types of Proxy Data 20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics Table of Contents Composition of the Atmosphere Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere 20.4 Heating the Atmosphere Energy from the Sun The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect 20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change Plate Movements and Orbital Variations Volcanic Activity and Climate Change Solar Variability and Climate 20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate Rising CO2 Levels The Atmospheres Response The Role of Trace Gases 20.7 Climate-Feedback Mechanisms Types of Feedback Mechanisms Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools 20.8 How Aerosols Influence Climate 20.9 Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming Sea-Level Rise The Changing Arctic Increasing Ocean Acidity The Potential for Surprises Concepts in Review Give It Some Thought Appendix Metric and English Units Compared Glossary Index A B C D E F G H I J K Table of Contents L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z