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GLOBAL
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Essentials of Geology
TWELFTH EDITION
Frederick K. Lutgens • Edward J. Tarbuck • Illustrated by Dennis Tasa
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Page 24: Quote from Aristotle, translated by Adams, F.D., in The Birth and
Development of the Geological Sciences, Dover Publications, 1954; Page 25:
Quote from James Hutton, Theory of the Earth, 1785; Page 25: Quote from
William L. Stokes, Essentials of Earth History, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1973, p.
20; Page 26: Quote from James Hutton, Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, 1788; Page 28: Quote from Jacob Bronowski, The Common
Sense of Science, p. 148, Harvard University Press, 1953; Page 29: Quote
from F. James Rutherford and Andrew Ahlgren, Science for All Americans
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 7; Page 29: Quote from
Speech delivered at Douai on December 7, 1854 on the occasion of his formal
inauguration to the Faculty of Letters of Douai and the Faculty of Sciences
of Lille), reprinted in: Pasteur Vallery-Radot, ed., Oeuvres de Pasteur (Paris,
France: Masson and Co., 1939), vol. 7, page 131; Page 55: Quote from
Alfred Wegener, The Origin of Continents and Oceans, translated from the
4th revised German ed. of 1929 by J. Birman (London: Methuen, 1966); Page
56: R. T. Chamberlain, quoted from Hallam, A. (1973) A Revolution in the
Earth Sciences. Clarendon Press, Oxford; Page 124: Quote from Lee Green,
MD, an associate professor at the University of Michigan Medical School;
Page 188: Quote from Jack Eddy, “A Fragile Seam of Dark Blue Light,” in
Proceedings of the Global Change Research Forum. U.S. Geological Survey
Circular 1086, 1993, p. 15; Page 277: Quote from Walter Mooney, a USGS
seismologist; Page 371: Quote from Exploration of the Colorado River of the
West (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1875), p. 203; Page 435:
Quote from J. D. Hays, John Imbrie, and N. J. Shackelton, “Variations in the
Earth’s Orbit: Pacemaker of the Ice Ages,” Science 194 (1976): 1121–32. p.
1131; Page 453: Quote from R. A. Bagnold, The Physics of Blown Sand and
Desert Dunes, 2005; Page 494: Quote from James Hutton, Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1805; Page 504: Quote from B. Bryson, A Short
History of Nearly Everything (Broadway Books, 2003); Page 563: Quote
from IPCC, “Summary for Policy Makers.” In Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis; Page 569: Quote from J. T. Overpeck, et al., “Arctic
System on Trajectory to New, Seasonally Ice-Free States,” EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 86 (34): 309, August 23, 2005; Page
571: National Assessment Synthesis Team, Climate Change Impacts on the
United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change
(Washington, DC: U.S. Global Research Program, 2000), p. 19.
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Essentials of Geology, Global Edition
Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
1 An Introduction to Geology
1.1 Geology: The Science of Earth
Physical and Historical Geology
Geology, People, and the Environment
1.2 The Development of Geology
Catastrophism
The Birth of Modern Geology
Geology Today
The Magnitude of Geologic Time
1.3 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
Hypothesis
Theory
Scientific Methods
Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry
1.4 Earths Spheres
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Geosphere
1.5 Earth as a System
Earth System Science
The Earth System
1.6 Early Evolution of Earth
Origin of Planet Earth
Formation of Earths Layered Structure
1.7 Earths Internal Structure
Earths Crust
Earths Mantle
Earths Core
1.8 Rocks and the Rock Cycle
The Basic Cycle
Alternative Paths
Table of Contents
1.9 The Face of Earth
Major Features of the Continents
Major Features of the Ocean Floor
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
2 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds
2.1 From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics
2.2 Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas
Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features
Evidence: Ancient Climates
2.3 The Great Debate
Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis
2.4 The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere
Earths Major Plates
Plate Boundaries
2.5 Divergent Plate Boundaries and Seafloor Spreading
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
Continental Rifting
2.6 Convergent Plate Boundaries and Subduction
OceanicContinental Convergence
OceanicOceanic Convergence
ContinentalContinental Convergence
2.7 Transform Plate Boundaries
2.8 How Do Plates and Plate Boundaries Change?
The Breakup of Pangaea
Plate Tectonics in the Future
2.9 Testing the Plate Tectonics Model
Evidence: Ocean Drilling
Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
Evidence: Paleomagnetism
2.10 How Is Plate Motion Measured?
Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion
Measuring Plate Motion from Space
2.11 What Drives Plate Motions?
Forces That Drive Plate Motion
Models of PlateMantle Convection
Concepts in Review
Table of Contents
Give It Some Thought
3 Matter and Minerals
3.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock
Defining a Mineral
What Is a Rock?
3.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons
3.3 Why Atoms Bond
The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred
Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing
Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move
Mineral Strength
Density and Specific Gravity
Other Properties of Minerals
3.5 Mineral Groups
Classifying Minerals
Silicate Versus Nonsilicate Minerals
3.6 The Silicates
Silicate Structures
Joining Silicate Structures
3.7 Common Silicate Minerals
The Light Silicates
The Dark Silicates
3.8 Important Nonsilicate Minerals
3.9 Minerals: A Nonrenewable Resource
Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources
Mineral Resources and Ore Deposits
Concepts in Review:
Give It Some Thought
4 Igneous Rocks and Intrusive Activity
4.1 Magma: Parent Material of Igneous Rock
The Nature of Magma
From Magma to Crystalline Rock
Igneous Processes
4.2 Igneous Compositions
Granitic (Felsic) Versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions
Other Compositional Groups
Table of Contents
Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition
4.3 Igneous Textures: What Can They Tell Us?
Types of Igneous Textures
4.4 Naming Igneous Rocks
Granitic (Felsic) Igneous Rocks
Andesitic (Intermediate) Igneous Rocks
Basaltic (Mafic) Igneous Rocks
Pyroclastic Rocks
4.5 Origin of Magma
Generating Magma from Solid Rock
4.6 How Magmas Evolve
Bowens Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks
Magmatic Differentiation and Crystal Settling
Assimilation and Magma Mixing
4.7 Partial Melting and Magma Composition
Formation of Basaltic Magma
Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas
4.8 Intrusive Igneous Activity
Nature of Intrusive Bodies
Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills
Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths
4.9 Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes
Magmatic Segregation and Ore Deposits
Hydrothermal Deposits
Origin of Diamonds
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
5 Volcanoes and Volcanic Hazards
5.1 Mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea
5.2 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
Factors Affecting Viscosity
Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions
5.3 Materials Extruded During an Eruption
Lava Flows
Gases
Pyroclastic Materials
5.4 Anatomy of a Volcano
5.5 Shield Volcanoes
Mauna Loa: Earths Largest Shield Volcano
Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano
Table of Contents
5.6 Cinder Cones
Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone
5.7 Composite Volcanoes
5.8 Volcanic Hazards
Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones
Other Volcanic Hazards
5.9 Other Volcanic Landforms
Calderas
Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus
Lava Domes
Volcanic Necks and Pipes
5.10 Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity
Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries
Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries
Intraplate Volcanism
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
6 Weathering and Soils
6.1 Weathering
6.2 Mechanical Weathering
Frost Wedging
Salt Crystal Growth
Sheeting
Biological Activity
6.3 Chemical Weathering
Water and Carbonic Acid
How Granite Weathers
Weathering of Silicate Minerals
Spheroidal Weathering
6.4 Rates of Weathering
Rock Characteristics
Climate
Differential Weathering
6.5 Soil
An Interface in the Earth System
What Is Soil?
6.6 Controls of Soil Formation
Parent Material
Time
Table of Contents
Climate
Plants and Animals
Topography
6.7 The Soil Profile
6.8 Classifying Soils
6.9 The Impact of Human Activities on Soil
Clearing the Tropical Rain ForestA Case Study of Human Impact on Soil
Soil Erosion: Losing a Vital Resource
6.10 Weathering and Ore Deposits
Bauxite
Other Deposits
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
7 Sedimentary Rocks
7.1 The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks
7.2 Origins of Sedimentary Rock
7.3 Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Shale
Sandstone
Conglomerate and Breccia
7.4 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone
Dolostone
Chert
Evaporites
7.5 Coal: An Organic Sedimentary Rock
7.6 Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification
Diagenesis
Lithification
7.7 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
7.8 Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments
Importance of Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary Facies
Sedimentary Structures
7.9 Resources from Sedimentary Rocks
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
Energy Resources
7.10 The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
Table of Contents
8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
8.1 What Is Metamorphism?
8.2 What Drives Metamorphism?
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent
Confining Pressure
Differential Stress
Chemically Active Fluids
The Importance of Parent Rock
8.3 Metamorphic Textures
Foliation
Foliated Textures
Other Metamorphic Textures
8.4 Common Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
8.5 Metamorphic Environments
Contact or Thermal Metamorphism
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
Other Metamorphic Environments
8.6 Metamorphic Zones
Textural Variations
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
9 Earthquakes and Earths Interior
9.1 What Is an Earthquake?
Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes
Aftershocks and Foreshocks
Faults and Large Earthquakes
9.2 Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves
Instruments That Record Earthquakes
Seismic Waves
9.3 Locating the Source of an Earthquake
9.4 Determining the Size of Earthquakes
Intensity Scales
Magnitude Scales
9.5 Earthquake Destruction
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
Table of Contents
Landslides and Ground Subsidence
Fire
What Is a Tsunami?
9.6 Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?
Earthquakes Associated with Plate boundaries
Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies
9.7 Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?
Short-Range Predictions
Long-Range Forecasts
9.8 Earths Interior
Formation of Earths Layered Structure
Probing Earths Interior: Seeing Seismic Waves
9.9 Earths Layers
Crust
Mantle
Core
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
10 Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor
10.1 An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor
Mapping the Seafloor
Provinces of the Ocean Floor
10.2 Continental Margins
Passive Continental Margins
Active Continental Margins
10.3 Features of Deep-Ocean Basins
Deep-Ocean Trenches
Abyssal Plains
Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor
Explaining Coral AtollsDarwins Hypothesis
10.4 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge
10.5 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading
Seafloor Spreading
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?
Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography
10.6 The Nature of Oceanic Crust
How Does Oceanic Crust Form?
Interactions Between Seawater and Oceanic Crust
10.7 Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin
Evolution of an Ocean Basin
Table of Contents
Failed Rifts
10.8 Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts
Subducting Plates: The Demise of Ocean Basins
Concepts In Review
Give It Some Thought
11 Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building
11.1 Crustal Deformation
What Causes Rocks to Deform?
Types of Deformation
Factors That Affect Rock Strength
11.2 Folds: Rock Structures Formed by Ductile Deformation
Anticlines and Synclines
Domes and Basins
Monoclines
11.3 Faults and Joints: Rock Structures Formed by Brittle Deformation
Dip-Slip Faults
Strike-Slip Faults
Joints
11.4 Mountain Building
11.5 Subduction and Mountain Building
Island ArcType Mountain Building
Andean-Type Mountain Building
Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley
11.6 Collisional Mountain Belts
Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building
Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions
The Himalayas
The Appalachians
11.7 What Causes Earths Varied Topography?
The Principle of Isostasy
How High Is Too High?
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
12 Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity
12.1 The Importance of Mass Wasting
Landslides as Geologic Hazards
The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development
Slopes Change Through Time
12.2 Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting
Table of Contents
The Role of Water
Oversteepened Slopes
Removal of Vegetation
Earthquakes as Triggers
Landslides Without Triggers?
The Potential for Landslides
12.3 Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes
Type of Material
Type of Motion
Rate of Movement
12.4 Rapid Forms of Mass Wasting
Rockslide
Debris Flow
Earthflow
12.5 Slow Movements
Creep
Solifluction
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
13 Running Water
13.1 Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle
13.2 Running Water
Drainage Basins
River Systems
Drainage Patterns
13.3 Streamflow
Factors Affecting Flow Velocity
Changes Downstream
13.4 The Work of Running Water
Stream Erosion
Transport of Sediment by Streams
Deposition of Sediment by Streams
13.5 Stream Channels
Bedrock Channels
Alluvial Channels
13.6 Shaping Stream Valleys
Base Level and Graded Streams
Valley Deepening
Valley Widening
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces
Table of Contents
13.7 Depositional Landforms
Deltas
The Mississippi River Delta
Natural Levees
Alluvial Fans
13.8 Floods and Flood Control
Types of Floods
Flood Control
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
14 Groundwater
14.1 The Importance of Groundwater
Groundwater and the Hydrosphere
Geologic Importance of Groundwater
Groundwater: A Basic Resource
14.2 Groundwater and the Water Table
Distribution of Groundwater
The Water Table
14.3 Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater
Porosity
Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers
14.4 How Groundwater Moves
A Simple Groundwater Flow System
Measuring Groundwater Movement
Different Scales of Movement
14.5 Wells
14.6 Artesian Systems
14.7 Springs, Hot Springs, and Geysers
Springs
Hot Springs
Geysers
14.8 Environmental Problems
Mining Groundwater
Subsidence
Saltwater Contamination
Groundwater Contamination
14.9 The Geologic Work of Groundwater
Caverns
Karst Topography
Concepts in Review
Table of Contents
Give It Some Thought
15 Glaciers and Glaciation
15.1 Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers
Ice Sheets
Other Types of Glaciers
15.2 Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice
Glacial Ice Formation
How Glaciers Move
Observing and Measuring Movement
Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage
15.3 Glacial Erosion
How Glaciers Erode
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion
15.4 Glacial Deposits
Glacial Drift
Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles
Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames
15.5 Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers
Crustal Subsidence and Rebound
Sea-Level Changes
Changes to Rivers and Valleys
Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes
Pluvial Lakes
15.6 The Ice Age
Development of the Glacial Theory
Causes of Ice Ages
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
16 Deserts and Wind
16.1 Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands
What Is Meant by Dry?
Subtropical Deserts and Steppes
Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes
16.2 Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
Weathering
The Role of Water
16.3 Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape
16.4 Wind Erosion
Transportation of Sediment by Wind
Table of Contents
Erosional Features
16.5 Wind Deposits
Sand Deposits
Types of Sand Dunes
Loess (Silt) Deposits
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
17 Shorelines
17.1 The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface
The Coastal Zone
Basic Features
Beaches
17.2 Ocean Waves
Wave Characteristics
Circular Orbital Motion
Waves in the Surf Zone
17.3 Shoreline Processes
Wave Erosion
Sand Movement on the Beach
17.4 Shoreline Features
Erosional Features
Depositional Features
The Evolving Shore
17.5 Stabilizing the Shore
Hard Stabilization
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization
17.6 Contrasting Americas Coasts
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts
Pacific Coast
Coastal Classification
17.7 Hurricanes: The Ultimate Coastal Hazard
Profile of a Hurricane
Hurricane Destruction
17.8 Tides
Causes of Tides
Monthly Tidal Cycle
Tidal Currents
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
18 Geologic Time
Table of Contents
18.1 Creating a Time Scale: Relative Dating Principles
The Importance of a Time Scale
Numerical and Relative Dates
Principle of Superposition
Principle of Original Horizontality
Principle of Lateral Continuity
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
Inclusions
Unconformities
Applying Relative Dating Principles
18.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life
Types of Fossils
Conditions Favoring Preservation
18.3 Correlation of Rock Layers
Correlation Within Limited Areas
Fossils and Correlation
18.4 Dating with Radioactivity
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure
Radioactivity
Half-Life
Using Various Isotopes
Dating with Carbon-14
18.5 The Geologic Time Scale
Structure of the Time Scale
Precambrian Time
Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale
18.6 Determining Numerical Dates for Sedimentary Strata
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
19 Earths Evolution Through Geologic Time
19.1 Is Earth Unique?
The Right Planet
The Right Location
The Right Time
Viewing Earths History
19.2 Birth of a Planet
From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements
From Planetesimals to Protoplanets
Earths Early Evolution
19.3 Origin and Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans
Earths Primitive Atmosphere
Table of Contents
Oxygen in the Atmosphere
Evolution of the Oceans
19.4 Precambrian History: The Formation of Earths Continents
Earths First Continents
The Making of North America
Supercontinents of the Precambrian
19.5 Geologic History of the Phanerozoic: The Formation of Earths Modern
Continents
Paleozoic History
Mesozoic History
Cenozoic History
19.6 Earths First Life
Origin of Life
Earths First Life: Prokaryotes
19.7 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes
Early Paleozoic Life-Forms
Vertebrates Move to Land
Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates
The Great Permian Extinction
19.8 Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs
Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees
Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky
Demise of the Dinosaurs
19.9 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals
From Reptiles to Mammals
Marsupial and Placental Mammals
Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion
Large Mammals and Extinction
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
20 Global Climate Change
20.1 Climate and Geology
The Climate System
ClimateGeology Connections
20.2 Detecting Climate Change
Seafloor SedimentA Storehouse of Climate Data
Oxygen Isotope Analysis
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice
Tree RingsArchives of Environmental History
Other Types of Proxy Data
20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics
Table of Contents
Composition of the Atmosphere
Extent and Structure of the Atmosphere
20.4 Heating the Atmosphere
Energy from the Sun
The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy
Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect
20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change
Plate Movements and Orbital Variations
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change
Solar Variability and Climate
20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate
Rising CO2 Levels
The Atmospheres Response
The Role of Trace Gases
20.7 Climate-Feedback Mechanisms
Types of Feedback Mechanisms
Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools
20.8 How Aerosols Influence Climate
20.9 Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming
Sea-Level Rise
The Changing Arctic
Increasing Ocean Acidity
The Potential for Surprises
Concepts in Review
Give It Some Thought
Appendix Metric and English Units Compared
Glossary
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
Table of Contents
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z