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Biology and Anatomy & Physiology Helps:
Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology and the Human Body
By Carolyn Miller
All Rights Reserved
© 2013 Carolyn Miller
Outside of fair use, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any way without
express permission of the author.
Cover art
Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci
Dedication:
For my Jeff
You are the sun that keeps me in orbit.
Preface:
Please note this text is designed to act as a lesson supplement. This text is not intended to
provide a comprehensive review of the materials covered without a full Biology or Anatomy
& Physiology curriculum to back it up. The Biology and Anatomy & Physiology Helps series
is designed to provide a limited review of the objectives and vocabulary covered by many
instructors. This series is in note-like format to supplement any student study guide on the
topic, and provides a self test at the end of each text to help with material review.
The Biology and Anatomy & Physiology Helps series also provides note taking tips as an aid
to the student to further develop classroom and study skills.
Table of Contents:
Preface
Note Taking Helps
Defining Anatomy and Physiology
The Principal of Complementarity of Structure and Function
Structural Organization
Organ Systems
Homeostasis
Anatomical Position and Definitions
Body Cavities and Membranes
Self Test
Answers
Resources and References
About the Author
Note Taking Helps:
Note taking helps are provided to aid the student in further development of study and
classroom skills. The following abbreviations can help you increase your note taking speed in
class and increase readability of notes at a later time.
~ = approximately
∴
= therefore
w/ = with
w/o = without
b/c = because
# = number or pounds
↑
= increase
↓
= decrease
+ = positive
- = negative
= = equals
> = greater than
< = less than
ex = example
excp = exception
⇒ or ➝
= yields
Biology:
NZ = enzyme
NG = energy
O₂ = oxygen
CO₂ = carbon dioxide
C = carbon
AA = amino acid
H₂O = water
CT = connective tissue
RBC = red blood cell
WBC = white blood cell
Hb = hemoglobin
♀
= female
♂
= male
1˚ = primary
2˚ = secondary
3˚ = tertiary
4˚ = quaternary
temp = temperature
A&P = anatomy and physiology
Defining Anatomy and Physiology
anatomy
the study of the shape and structure of living organisms and their parts
there are many branches of anatomy
gross anatomy
deals with body structure visible with the naked eye
also called macroscopic anatomy
regional anatomy
all the structures in a particular region of the body are studied at the same time
systemic anatomy
body structures are studied system by system
developmental anatomy
studies structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
embryology -a division of developmental anatomy that studies development
form conception to birth
surface anatomy
the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
microscopic anatomy
cytology -the study of the cells of the body
histology -the study of body tissues
pathological anatomy
studies structural changes caused by disease
radiographic or x-ray anatomy
studies the internal structures as visualized by x-ray film
physiology
the study of the functions of living organism and their parts
how the body works and carries on its life-sustaining activities
often focuses on events that happen at the molecular and cellular level
requires a basic understanding of electrical currents, blood pressure and the way muscle
uses bone for movement, and the physics involved with each
there are many subdivisions of physiology
renal physiology
the study of kidney function and urine production
neurophysiology
the study of the nervous system
cardiovascular physiology
the study of the heart and blood vessels
The Principal of Complementarity of Structure
and Function
principal of complementarity
this principal is an integral part of the study of anatomy and physiology it will come up
throughout your studies.
what a structure can do is dependent upon its form, therefore anatomy and physiology
are usually studied together
structure (anatomy) always reflects function (physiology)
structural characteristics of a cell, organ or system will contribute to its function
(example: bones are made up of mineral deposits which are hard allowing bones to
function as organs of support and protection)
Structural Organization
structural organization
can be broken down to many levels
the levels build upon one another
chemical level- contains atoms and molecules which associate in specific ways to
form organelles
cellular level
tissue level
tissues -groups of similar cells that have a common function
four basic types
epithelium
muscle
nervous
connective tissue (CT)
organ level
organ
differentiated part of the body made up of at least two tissue types that
performs a specific function.
each organ has a specialized function for the body which no other organ
can perform
at organ level, more complex functions become possible
organ system level
organs that work together to accomplish a specific task are part of the same
organ system.
organismal level
the whole living organism with all parts functioning together.
Structural Organization Flow Chart
atoms→molecules→macromolecules→organelles→cell→tissue→organ→organ
system→organism
The Properties of Life
anatomy and physiology are branches of biology, the science of life
the properties of life an organism must be able to maintain are
maintaining boundaries so the internal environment remains distinct from the external
environment
movement or locomotion -the ability of an organism to propel itself from one location to
another
responsiveness or excitability -the ability to react to one's environment
digestion -the breakdown of ingested foodstuff
metabolism -all chemical reactions that occur within the body
excretion -the ability to remove wastes from the body
reproduction -the ability to procreate cells and individuals
growth -increase in size of a part or whole organism
Organ Systems
the human body's organ systems and their major functions
cardiovascular system -circulates blood which carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and
removes waste and carbon dioxide
digestive system -breaks down food into absorbable nutrients to be distributed to the
body via the blood
endocrine system -glands secrete hormones that regulate the body and its processes
integumentary system -forms protective external body covering
lymphatic/immune system - picks up fluid and returns it to the blood vessels, disposes
of debris and houses white blood cells
muscular system - allows for movement and manipulation of the environment and
produces heat
nervous system -body's control system, responds to internal and external stimuli
reproductive system -functions to produce offspring
respiratory system -keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
from the blood
skeletal system -protects and supports the body and organs, provides framework for
muscles that allows for locomotion, provides mineral storage and a location for blood
cell formation
urinary system -eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body and regulates water and
electrolyte balance of the blood
interrelationships between the organ systems occur to support homeostasis in the body.
Homeostasis
homeostasis
a state of equilibrium, in the body or stable internal environment
the body is aways in a dynamic state of equilibrium
chemical, thermal and neural factors inside and outside the body all interact to maintain a
homeostasis
homeostasis is necessary for health
most disease can be regarded as a homeostatic imbalance
homeostatic control
communication within the body is required to maintain homeostasis
all body systems contribute to homeostasis but the nervous and endocrine systems are
the most important
nervous system -utilizes electrical impulses as information carriers
endocrine system -utilizes blood-borne hormones as information carriers
homeostatic control mechanisms
processes that involve at least 3 components that work together
receptor
usually involves nervous or endocrine system inputing message
monitors environment and responds to environmental changes or stimuli
input sent along afferent pathways that approach the control centers
control center
responds to stimulus and determines the set point at which the variable is
maintained
positive feedback -response enhances original stimulus (examples: childbirth
contractions enhance until baby is delivered, blood clotting)
negative feedback -output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or
reduces the intensity (examples: regulation of body temperature, withdrawal
reflex)
most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms
output sent along efferent pathways that exit the control center to effector
organs
effector
effects the response
provides the means to respond to the stimulus
homeostatic control mechanism flow chart
stimulation➝receptor➝afferent pathway➝control center➝efferent pathway➝effector
➝balance
Anatomical Position and Definitions
(study note: make flash cards of the following terms, separate them in categories of anterior,
posterior, planes/sections, body cavities and membranes)
anatomical position
body erect with feet slightly apart and palms facing forward
right and left refer to the subject's right and and left and not those of the observer
planes and sections
frontal/coronal plane -a longitudinal plane separating the body into anterior and
posterior sections
median/midsagittal plane -a longitudinal plane down the midline of the body separating
the body into left and right sections
oblique section -cuts made diagonally across the body
sagittal -longitudinal plane separates the body right to left
transverse – horizontal plane that separates the body into superior and inferior parts,
cross section
orientation and directional terms
allow for the precise location of a body structure is in relation to another
abdominal -anterior body, trunk, inferior to ribs
deltoid/acromial - shoulder
antecubital -anterior surface, in front of the elbow
antebrachial - forearm
axillary -armpit region
brachial -anterior and posterior surfaces, arm above the elbow
buccal – anterior surface, cheek
carpal -wrist
cephalic -anterior and posteriors, head
cervical -neck
coxal -anterior surface, hip
deep – away from the body's surface, more internal
digital -refers to the fingers or toes
distal -further from the origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb to the torso
dorsal -toward the back of the body, back, behind
dorsum -posterior surface, back
femoral – anterior and posterior thigh (femur)
frontal -anterior region of the forehead
gluteal -posterior surface, buttocks or rump
inferior -away from from the head or toward the bottom of a structure or body, below
inguinal – anterior surface, groin
lateral -away from the midline of the body, on the outer side
lumbar -posterior surface, back between the ribs and hips or loin
mammary -anterior surface, breast
manus -anterior and posterior surface, hand
medial -toward the midline of a body, on the inner side
mental -anterior surface, chin
nasal -anterior surface, nose
occipital -posterior surface, back of head
olecranal – posterior surface, point of the elbow
oral – anterior surface, mouth
orbital -anterior surface, bony eye socket or orbit
patellar -anterior knee region or kneecap
pedal -anterior and posterior surfaces, foot
perineal -posterior surface between the anus and external genitalia, the perineum
planter -posterior surface, sole of the foot
popliteal -posterior surface, back of the knee
proximal -closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb to the
torso
pubic -anterior surface, genital region or pubis
sacral -posterior surface, area between the hips, overlying sacrum
scapular -posterior surface, scapula or shoulder blade
sternal -anterior surface, region of the breast bone or sternum
superficial -toward the body's surface, external
superior – toward the head or upper end of a body, above
tarsal -ankle
thoracic -anterior surface, chest
umbilical -anterior surface, naval
ventral -toward the front of the body, front
vertebral – posterior surface, spinal column
Body Cavities and Membranes
abdominopelvic cavity -body cavity containing the digestive and reproductive organs
because the abdominopelvic cavity is large and contains many organs it can be
separated into 4 quadrants
right upper quadrant (RUQ)
right lower quadrant (RLQ)
left upper quadrant (LUQ)
left lower quadrant (LLQ)
cranial cavity -body cavity within the skull, containing the brain
dorsal body cavity -located in the back of body, protects the nervous system
separated into cranial cavity and spinal/vertebral cavity
pleura -membrane that surrounds the lungs
pleural cavity -body cavity that houses the lungs
pericardial cavity – encloses the heart
pericardium -membrane surrounding the heart
parietal layer -outer layer of an enveloping membrane lining the walls of a cavity
peritoneum -serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity
serous fluid -fluid lubricant located between serous layers or membranes
serous membranes -thin double layer membranes found in body cavities
function -protective covering, protects from movement and friction
thoracic cavity – body cavity surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest
further subdivided into the pleural, and pericardial cavities
ventral body cavity -body cavity located in the torso, anterior to the dorsal cavity
subdivided into the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
visceral layer -inner layer of a protective enveloping membrane lining the surface of an
organ, in direct contact with the organ
vertebral/spinal cavity -body cavity containing the spinal cord, protected by the
vertebral column
Self Test
1. What is anatomy?
2. What level of structural organization in is a histologist studying?
3. What is the principal of complementarity of structure and function?
4. Complete the flow chart: macromolecules→organelles→_______→tissue
5. What organ system functions to allow for movement and manipulation of the
environment and produces heat?
6. Most disease can be considered a __________ imbalance.
7. Complete the following flow chart: receptor➝afferent pathway➝_____➝efferent
pathway➝effector
8. The fingers are (proximal/distal) to the elbow
9. Manus refers to what area of the body?
10. What is a longitudinal plane down the midline of the body separating the body into left
and right sections called?
Answers
1. the study of the shape and structure of living organisms and their parts
2. tissue level, histology is the anatomy of tissues
3. function always reflects structure, what a structure can do is dependent upon its form.
4. cell
5. muscular system
6. homeostatic
7. control center
8. distal
9. hand
10. median/midsagittal plane