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Chapter 6
Learning
Figure 06.F01: Learning theories in psychology address only observable behaviors, and
apply to all types of organisms.
Figure 06.F02: The sequence of events in Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment.
Figure 06.F03: In higher-order conditioning, a new neutral stimulus is paired with an
already learned conditioned stimulus instead of with the unconditioned stimulus.
Figure 06.F04: The rising line shows an increase in the conditioned response during
acquisition, and a decrease during extinction. After time passes, the response may
return.
Figure 06.F05: Pavlov's dogs and the strength of conditioned response vs. the
frequency of the bell tone (conditioned stimulus)
Figure 06.F06: The three stages in classical conditioning are depicted: Before, during,
and after conditioning (learning).
Figure 06.F07: Through classical conditioning, a perfume scent (conditioned stimulus)
can become associated with sexual arousal (conditioned response).
Figure 06.F08: Suppression of the immune system occurred through classical
conditioning when a sweet taste was paired with exposure to an immune-suppressing
drug.
Source: Data from Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966).
Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning.
Psychonomic Science, 4, 123–124.
Figure 06.F09: Water intake pre- and post conditioning where the unconditioned
stimulus was (A) X-Rays or (B) electric shock. The results show that some pairings are
more readily learned.
Figure 06.F10: Through classical conditioning, a waiting room (conditioned stimulus)
can become associated with nausea (conditioned response).
Figure 06.F11: The cat in a puzzle box would perform many different behaviors, until
finally it learned to press the level and escape.
Figure 06.F12: B. F. Skinner was very influential learning theorist, and a major figure in
20th century culture.
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Figure 06.F13: The Skinner Box is a controlled environment where animals could be
trained while recording their responses automatically.
© Walter Dawn/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Figure 06.F14: Skinner's view was that "reinforcement" always makes the behavior
grows stronger.
Figure 06.F15: Food is a primary reinforcer because its positive value to the learner is
already established.
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Figure 06.F16: A kiss is a secondary reinforcer for this dolphin because it had to learn
that affection from its trainer means positive consequences for it.
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Figure 06.F17: A Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement.
Figure 06.F18: A Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement.
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Figure 06.F19: The delivery schedule for reinforcement makes a difference in how
quickly the learner will perform the behavior.
Figure 06.F20: A Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement.
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Figure 06.F21: A variable interval schedule of reinforcement.
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Figure 06.F22: The key difference is that reinforcement always strengthens behavior,
while punishment decreases it.
Figure 06.F23: It is easier to train a pig to play soccer than other sports because they
naturally “root” into the ground, behavior that helps them learn to move the ball.
© Stuart Abraham/Alamy Images
Figure 06.F24: In the baseline period, both groups performed the same, but when the
experimental group received reinforcements, their performance was elevater, even
after the that period ended.
Data from Luthans, F., Paul, R., & Baker, D. (1981). An
experimental analysis of the impact of contingent
reinforcement on salesperson' performance behavior.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 66 (3). 314-323.
Figure 06.F25: Tolman and Honzik's results showed that the HNR-R group (green line)
quickly responded to reinforcement, performing better than the HR group (red line).
Data from Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men.
Psychological Review, 55, 189-208; Tolman, E. C., & Honzik, C. H. (1930).
Introduction and removal of reward and maze performance in rats.
University of California Publications in Psychology, 4, 257-275.
Figure 06.F26: The results of Bandura's study: Control (green) and Nonaggressive
Model subject (red) showed less aggressive behaviors than the Aggressive Model
Source: Data from Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A.
subjects (blue).
(1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of
aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 63, 575–582.
Figure 06.F27: Some of the same neurons fire when a monkey watches an action as
when it performs the same action.
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Figure 06.F28: Frequent exposure to violent images results in lowered physiological,
and therefore psychological, responses.
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Figure 06.VOA
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Figure 06.VOB
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Figure 06.VOC
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Figure 06.VOD
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Figure 06.VOE
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Figure 06.VOF
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Figure 06.VOG
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Table 06.T01: Summary of Behavioral Learning Theories
Table 06.T02: Reinforcement Learning
Table 06.T03: Schedules of Reinforcement
Figure 06.UN01: The positive emotions from cooking with family may become
associated with specific foods, which later give rise to the same feelings on their own.
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Figure 06.UN02: The sounds of the dentist’s drill become associated with pain, so that
the sound alone may give rise to fear in the future.
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Figure 06.UN03: Reflexive or automatic emotional arousal may occur from some
events; in this case, a fly in your soup elicits the emotion of disgust.
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Figure 06.UN04: Car advertisements with sexy models are intended to build your
positive associations with the automobile.
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Figure 06.UN05A: Humans appear to be biologically prepared to respond to some
fearful stimuli; in particular: spiders, lightning and thunder, snakes, heights, and
darkness.
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Figure 06.UN05B: Humans appear to be biologically prepared to respond to some
fearful stimuli; in particular: spiders, lightning and thunder, snakes, heights, and
darkness.
© prudkov/ShutterStock, Inc.
Figure 06.UN05C: Humans appear to be biologically prepared to respond to some
fearful stimuli; in particular: spiders, lightning and thunder, snakes, heights, and
darkness.
© Maria Dryfhout/ShutterStock, Inc.
Figure 06.UN05D: Humans appear to be biologically prepared to respond to some
fearful stimuli; in particular: spiders, lightning and thunder, snakes, heights, and
darkness.
© Greg Epperson/ShutterStock, Inc.
Figure 06.UN05E: Humans appear to be biologically prepared to respond to some
fearful stimuli; in particular: spiders, lightning and thunder, snakes, heights, and
darkness.
© Suzanne Tucker/ShutterStock, inc.
Figure 06.UN06: Yelling at children may teach them to act similarly toward others.
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Figure 06.UN07: Positive reinforcement has been shown to be effective in changing
behaviors of children with severe autism.
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Figure 06.UN08: Mice who wander in a maze without any reward will then run
through it quickly once cheese is added to the goal box as a reward.
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Figure 06.UN09: Violent images in emotionally arousing video games may lead to
desensitization towards aggression.
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Figure 06.UN10: Chimpanzees have been found to develop novel methods of foraging
for foods that are shared within social groups.
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