Download The Roman Empire lasted from 27 BC

As the Roman Empire expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not
effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic
given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disaster, or epidemic outbreak was
carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's
orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial governors had ultimate control
in the name of the Roman Empire.
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events
throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would
revolt, and the military legions would be sent out to crush the
rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could
be considerably more complicated in wartime.
The main enemy in the West was arguably the Germanic
tribes (Angles, Saxons, Franks, Goths, Visigoths, Ostrogoths,
Huns & Vandals) behind the rivers Rhine and Danube.
Augustus had tried to conquer them but ultimately pulled
back.
The Parthian Empire (the descendents of the Persian
Empire), in the East, was too remote and powerful to be
conquered. Any Parthian invasion of Roman territory was
confronted and usually defeated; similarly, the Parthians
repelled attempted Roman invasions. However, even after
successful wars of conquest - such as those implemented by
Trajan and Septimius Severus – the distant territories were
abandoned by the Romans to prevent unrest and also to
ensure a healthy and lasting peace with the
Persians/Parthians.
Controlling the western border of Rome was
reasonably easy because it was relatively close and
also because of the disunity between the Germanic
tribes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether
during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near
the border in the East, chances were high that an
ambitious general would rebel in the West and viceversa. This wartime opportunism plagued many
During the reign of
Septimius Severus
ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors.
The Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 AD) was a period in which the Roman
Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague,
and economic depression. The Crisis began with the assassination of Emperor
Alexander Severus at the hands of his own troops, initiating a fifty-year period in
which 20–25 individuals claimed the title of Emperor, mostly prominent Roman
Army generals, and assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire.
Diocletian
The external borders were mostly stable during the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the
death of the emperor Aurelian in 275 and the accession of Diocletian ten years later, at least eight
emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops. Hence, Rome was
in a state of fragility.
Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted Maximian to
the rank of Augustus (or Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293,
Galerius and Constantius were appointed as Diocletian and Maximian’s subordinates (called Caesars),
creating the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and
created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd
century.
Maximian


Galerius
In the West, the capitals were: Maximian's
Mediolanum (now Milan, Italy) and
Constantius' Trier.
In the East, the capitals were Sirmium and
Nicomedia.
Constantius
Early Life
Flavius Valerius Constantinus, the future emperor Constantine, was
born at Naissus (modern day Serbia) on 27 February of 271, 272, or
273. His father was a military officer named Constantius, and his
mother a woman of humble background named Helena (later St.
Helena). Upon the retirement of Diocletian and Maximian on 1
May 305 Constantius succeeded to the rank of Augustus.
Ascension to Emperor
The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western
Roman Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his
son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Augustus (Emperor) of
the West by the Roman military legions in Britain. A crisis followed
as several individuals attempted to rule the Western half.
Maxentius
Constantine
the Great
At the same time the Senate and the Praetorian Guard in Rome had allied
themselves with Maxentius, the son of Maximian. In October 306 they
proclaimed him emperor. Open hostilities between the two rivals broke out in
312, whereupon Constantine was victorious in battle for control of the Western
Roman Empire. The battle became known as the Battle at the Milvian Bridge, a
stone bridge across the Tiber River. Constantine is said to have had a vision the
preceding night telling him that he would win under a certain sign that included
the appearance of a cross set against the sun and certain words in Greek that
translate into Latin as: in hoc signo vinces 'you will win under this sign.' This
sign and the following victory are credited with convincing Constantine to
convert to Christianity, which he did, but not immediately.
Prior to Constantine’s sign, life for Christians was brutal. Towards the end of his long reign, Diocletian
became ever more concerned about the high positions held by many Christians in Roman society and,
particularly, the army. On a visit to the Oracle of Apollo, he was advised by the pagan oracle to halt the
rise of the Christians. And so on 23 February AD 303, on the Roman day of the gods of boundaries, the
terminalia, Diocletian enacted what was to become perhaps the greatest persecution of Christians under
Roman rule.
Diocletian and, perhaps all the more viciously, his Caesar Galerius launched a serious purge against the
sect which they saw as becoming far too powerful and hence, too dangerous.
In Rome, Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor (Turkey) the Christians suffered most. However, in the west,
beyond the immediate grasp of the two persecutors things were far less ferocious.
The key moment in the establishment of Christianity as the predominant religion of the
Roman Empire, happened in AD 312 when emperor Constantine on the eve before
battle against the rival emperor Maxentius had a vision of the sign of Christ (the so
called chi-rho symbol) in a dream. And Constantine was to have the symbol inscribed on
his helmet and ordered all his soldiers (or at least those of his bodyguard) to point it on
their shields.
It was after the crushing victory he inflicted on his opponent against overwhelming odds that Constantine
declared he owed his victory to the god of the Christians. However, Constantine's claim to conversion is
not without controversy. There are many who see in his conversion rather the political realization of the
potential power of Christianity instead of any celestial vision.
Constantine had inherited a very tolerant attitude towards Christians from his father, but for the years of
his rule previous to that fateful night in AD 312 there was no definite indication of any gradual
conversion towards the Christian faith.
Until AD 324 Constantine appeared to on purposely blur the distinction of which god it was he followed,
the Christian god or pagan sun god Sol. Perhaps at this time he truly hadn't made up his mind yet.
Perhaps it was just that he felt his power was not yet established enough to confront the pagan majority
of the empire with a Christian ruler. However, substantial gestures were made toward the Christians very
soon after the fateful Battle of the Milvian Bridge in AD 312. Already in AD 313 tax exemptions were
granted to Christian clergy and money was granted to rebuild the major churches in Rome.
But once Constantine had defeated his last rival emperor Licinius in AD 324, the last of Constantine's
restraint disappeared and a Christian emperor (or at least one who championed the Christian cause)
ruled over the entire empire. He built a vast new basilica church on the Vatican hill, where reputedly St
Peter had been martyred. Other great churches were built by Constantine, such as the great St John
Lateran in Rome or the reconstruction of the great church of Nicomedia which had been destroyed by
Diocletian.
Apart from building great monuments to Christianity, Constantine now also became openly hostile
toward the pagans. Even pagan sacrifice itself was forbidden. Pagan temples (except those of the previous
official Roman state cult) had their treasures confiscated. These treasures were largely given to the
Christian churches instead. Gruesomely brutal laws were introduced to enforce Christian morality.
Constantine was evidently not an emperor who had decided to gradually educate the people of his
empire to this new religion. Far more the empire was shocked into a new religious order.
The Roman Empire lasted from 27 BC - 476 AD, a period exceeding 500 years. At its most powerful the
territories of the Roman Empire included lands in West and South Europe (the lands around the
Mediterranean), Britain, Asia Minor, North Africa including Egypt. The Decline of the Roman Empire was
due to many reasons but the major causes of the decline are detailed below. There was no specific order
of the causes for the fall of the Roman Empire. Different causes occurred over its time period of over five
hundred years.
When Did Rome Fall?
Some say the split into an eastern and western empire governed by separate emperors caused Rome to
fall. The eastern half became the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
The western half remained centered in Italy. Many say the Fall of Rome was an ongoing process, lasting
more than a century. Since Rome still exists, it is argued that it never fell. Some prefer to say that Rome
adapted rather than fell.
Why did Rome Fall?
There are adherents to single factors, but more people think a combination of such factors as Christianity,
debauchery, lead, monetary trouble, and military problems caused the Fall of Rome. Imperial
incompetence and chance could be added to the list. Even the rise of Islam is proposed as the reason for
Rome's fall, by some who think the Fall of Rome happened at Constantinople in A.D. 1453.
1. Christianity
Many even blame the initiation of Christianity for the decline of the Empire. Christianity made
many Roman citizens into pacifists, making it more difficult to defend against the barbarian
attackers. Also money used to build churches could have been used to maintain the Roman
Empire.
2. Decline in Morals and Values
Even during Pax Romana (A long period from Augustus to
Marcus Aurelius when the Roman Empire was stable and
relatively peaceful) there were many immoral people
roaming the streets in the city. Emperors like Caligula and
Nero became infamous for wasting money on lavish parties
where guests drank and ate until they became sick. The
most popular amusement was watching the gladiatorial
combats in the Colosseum.
3. Public Health
There were many public health and environmental problems. Many of the wealthy had water
brought to their homes through lead pipes. Previously the aqueducts had even purified the water
but at the end lead pipes were thought to be preferable. The wealthy death rate was very high. The
continuous interaction of people at the Colosseum was a probable spread of disease. Those who
lived on the streets in continuous contact allowed for an uninterrupted strain of disease much like
the homeless in the poorer run shelters of today. Alcohol use increased as well adding to the
incompetency of the general public.
4. Political Corruption
One of the most difficult problems was choosing a new emperor. Unlike
Greece where transition may not have been smooth but was at least
consistent, the Romans never created an effective system to determine how
new emperors would be selected. The choice was always open to debate
between the old emperor, the Senate, the Praetorian Guard (the emperor’s
private army), and the army. Gradually, the Praetorian Guard gained
complete authority to choose the new emperor, who rewarded the guard
who then became more influential, perpetuating the cycle. Then in 186 A. D. the army strangled
the new emperor, the practice began of selling the throne to the highest bidder. During the next
100 years, Rome had 37 different emperors - 25 of whom were removed from office by
assassination. This contributed to the overall weaknesses, decline and fall of the empire.
5. Unemployment
During the latter years of the empire farming was done on large estates called latifundia that were
owned by wealthy men who used slave labor. A farmer who had to pay workmen could not
produce goods as cheaply. Many farmers could not compete with these low prices and lost or sold
their farms. This not only undermined the citizen farmer who passed his values to his family, but
also filled the cities with unemployed people. At one time, the emperor was importing grain to
feed more than 100,000 people in Rome alone. These people were not only a burden but also had
little to do but cause trouble and contribute to an ever increasing crime rate.
6. Inflation
The Roman economy suffered from inflation (an increase in prices) beginning after the reign of
Marcus Aurelius. Once the Romans stopped conquering new lands, the flow of gold into the Roman
economy decreased. Yet much gold was being spent by the Romans to pay for luxury items. This
meant that there was less gold to use in coins. As the amount of gold used in coins decreased, the
coins became less valuable. To make up for this loss in value, merchants raised the prices on the
goods they sold. Many people stopped using coins and began to barter to get what they needed.
Eventually, salaries had to be paid in food and clothing, and taxes were collected in fruits and
vegetables.
7. Urban decay
Wealthy Romans lived in a domus, or house, with marble walls, floors with intricate colored tiles,
and windows made of small panes of glass. Most Romans, however, were not rich, they lived in
small smelly rooms in apartment houses with six or more stories called insulas. Each insula
covered an entire block. At one time there were 44,000 apartment houses within the city walls of
Rome. First-floor apartments were not occupied by the poor since these living quarters rented for
about $100 a year. The more shaky wooden stairs a family had to climb, the cheaper the rent
became. The upper apartments that the poor rented for $40 a year were hot, dirty, crowed, and
dangerous. Anyone who could not pay the rent was forced to move out and live on the crimeinfested streets. Because of this cities began to decay.
Domus
8. Inferior Technology
Another factor that had contributed to decline and fall of the Roman Empire was that during the
last 400 years of the empire, the scientific achievements of the Romans were limited almost
entirely to engineering and the organization of public services. They built marvelous roads,
bridges, and aqueducts. They established the first system of medicine for the benefit of the poor.
But since the Romans relied so much on human and animal labor, they failed to invent many new
machines or find new technology to produce goods more efficiently. They could not provide
enough goods for their growing population. They were no longer conquering other civilizations
and adapting their technology, they were actually losing territory they could not longer maintain
with their legions.
9. Military Spending
Maintaining an army to defend the border of the Empire from barbarian attacks was a constant
drain on the government. Military spending left few resources for other vital activities, such as
providing public housing and maintaining quality roads and aqueducts. Frustrated Romans lost
their desire to defend the Empire. The empire had to begin hiring soldiers recruited from the
unemployed city mobs or worse from foreign counties. Such an army was not only unreliable, but
very expensive. The emperors were forced to raise taxes frequently which in turn led again to
increased inflation.
10. The Final Blows
For years, the well-disciplined Roman army held the barbarians of Germany back. Then in the
third century A. D. the Roman soldiers were pulled back from the Rhine-Danube frontier to fight
civil war in Italy. This left the Roman border open to attack. Gradually Germanic hunters and
herders from the north began to overtake Roman lands in Greece and Gaul (later France). Then in
476 A. D. the Germanic general Odovacar overthrew the last of the Roman Emperors, Augustulus
Romulus. From then on the western part of the Empire was ruled by Germanic chieftain. Roads
and bridges were left in disrepair and fields left untilled. Pirates and bandits made travel unsafe.
Cities could not be maintained without goods from the farms, trade and business began to
disappear. And Rome was no more in the West.
The Byzantine Empire (or Byzantium) was the Eastern Roman Empire and was centered on the
capital of Constantinople. This remaining portion of the Roman Empire lasted until 1453 with the death
of Constantine XI and the capture of Constantinople by
Mehmed II, leader of the Ottoman Turks.