Download Amicus Brief Europe and Byzantium

Amicus Brief
Europe
United Nations World Court of Historical Affairs
Post-Classical Situation Report
The United Nations is charged with the maintenance and order of world affairs. Keeping in line with this
mission to provide stability and justice in the world the UN Council on Historical Affairs has compiled the
following brief to serve as an overview of cultural affairs on the planet from 600 C.E. to 1450 C.E.
The UNWCHA will be charged with hearing evidence from the seven regions of the planet outlining their
behaviors in creating frameworks of socio-cultural behaviors to provide for their people.
In the interest of full disclosure this amicus brief will provide litigation teams with all information already
gathered by the court on each of the seven cultures. The following is that evidence.
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Geographically, Europe is connected to Asia and is often not considered a continent on its own but is
referred to as Eurasia. Some schools refer to Europe as a continent because of its unique culture and
important role in world events but geographically it is better thought of as a peninsula on the western
edge of Asia. Europe is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains which run north and south through
Russia. Other important geographical features of Europe are the Alps, the Rhine River, Danube River,
Volga River, Mediterranean Sea and the European plain that includes much of France, Germany, Poland
and Russia.
The History of Europe and European culture has been the most influential during the past few centuries.
European culture can be divided into three primary regions based on geography. Western Europe is
different linguistically, religiously and politically from eastern Europe. And the region currently called
Russia is generally considered its own world region. All three of these areas are European and interact
through trade and occasionally war which connects them but they are different enough that studying
them individually is worth the effort.
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Vikings - 600 to 1200 AD
 Scandinavian warriors who raided Europe, Eastern Asia, and Eastern North America, Iceland,
Greenland Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia.
 Pirates and warriors, traders and colonists.
Viking Politics
 tribal life in small villages generally ruled by chief who was the strongest/bravest adult man in
the village
 over time tribes begin to unite into larger groups for increased power;
 Local government = “thing” - irregular outdoor meeting of adult men to discuss issues. Ended
with a vote to decide action. Sometimes an “allthing” was held for region wide issues.
Viking Economics
 Agriculture, fishing and raiding of other villages important throughout.
 Trade across their conquered land makes them wealthy.
 Viking ships which were ocean ready and could sail up rivers allowed them to travel and trade
across their entire territory.
Viking Religion
 originally Norse polytheists emphasizing nature worship then slowly converted to simplistic
Christianity
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Viking Social
 Life was simple and difficult. Cold, harsh weather and regular violence. Few schools or churches
until late 1000 when Christians enter. Many Vikings tribes were civilized by the people they
“took over”. (Normans, Anglos, Saxons, and others)
 Three social classes; jarls, karls, and thralls.
 The jarls = nobles often with slaves from captured tribes
 Karls = most Viking families who owned or rented their farms and did most of the work
themselves.
 Thralls slaves who could buy freedom with hard work or great fighting skill in battle
Viking Intellectual
 Sagas (great oral stories eventually written down in 1100-1200s), Viking ships, excellent
weapons, settled Greenland, Iceland and explored NE North America
Viking Art
 Viking ship, burial ships, sagas, some gold and silver work
 Viking Chess men carved from Walrus c 1000
 Saga of Erik the Red in Iceland c. 1250
 Silver brooch from Iceland c. 1200
The Viking’s Impact
 Viking ship technology spreads thru Europe
 Some English common law comes from Vikings
 Languages, vocabulary, and place-names of the areas they settled.
 Unite N. Europe and create global trade across N. Europe for 1st time
 Spread Christianity after 1100
 Caused European kingdoms to centralize by conquering and fear
 European kingdoms learned how to protect themselves and gain by trade and negotiation
 Create new cultures all over Europe (Rus in Moscovy, Norman England)
Viking Timeline
 789 -Vikings begin their attacks on England.800
 800 -The Oseberg Viking longship is buried about this time
 840 -Viking settlers found the city of Dublin in Ireland.
 844 -A Viking raid on Seville is repulsed.
 860 -Rus Vikings attack Constantinople (Istanbul).
 862 -Novgorod in Russia is founded by the Rus Viking, Ulrich.
 866 -Danish Vikings establish a kingdom in York, England.
 871 -Alfred the Great becomes king of Wessex; the Danish advance is halted in England.
 872 -Harald I gains control of Norway.
 879 -Rurik establishes Kiev as the center of the Kievan Rus' domains.
 886 -Alfred divides England with the Danes under the Danelaw pact.
 900 -The Vikings raid along the Mediterranean coast.
 911 -The Viking chief Rollo is granted land by the Franks and founds Normandy in France.
 941 -Rus Vikings attack Constantinople (Istanbul).
 981 -Viking leader Erik the Red discovers Greenland.
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986 -Viking ships sail in Newfoundland waters.
 991 -Æthelred II pays the first Danegeld ransom to stop Danish attacks on England.
 995 -Olav I conquer Norway and proclaim it a Christian kingdom.
 1000 -Christianity reaches Greenland and Iceland.
 1000 -Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, explores the coast of North America.
 1000 -Olav I dies; Norway is ruled by the Danes
 1002 -Brian Boru defeats the Norse and becomes the king of Ireland.
 1010 -Viking explorer Thorfinn Karlsefni attempts to found a settlement in North America.
 1013 -The Danes conquer England; Æthelred flees to Normandy.
 1015 -Vikings abandon the Vinland settlement on the coast of North America.
 1016 -Olav II regains Norway from the Danes.
 1016 -The Danes under Knut (Canute) rule England.
 1028 -Knut (Canute), king of England and Denmark, conquers Norway.
 1042- Edward the Confessor rules England with the support of the Danes.
 1050 -The city of Oslo is founded in Norway.
 1066 -Harold Godwinson king of England defeats Harald Hardrada king of Norway at the Battle
of Stamford Bridge 1066 -William duke of Normandy defeats the Saxon king Harold at the Battle
of Hastings.
Viking Families
 Despite being forced to arranged marriages, Viking women had more opportunities than other
women of the time. A woman could stay at home alone while her husband was gone to fight in
wars. She could also hold a job. Women were also in charge of keeping house by cooking,
weaving, and taking care of their children and farm animals.
 Children learned to do everything their parents did to prepare them for adulthood. Boys learned
how to fight, hunt, and farm. Girls learned how to make cloth and take care of a household.
Homes
 Houses were typically between 50 and 100 feet long and had one large room. Animals often
shared the living space with the family when the weather was cold. The chieftain's home usually
had a couple separate rooms in it. The houses were constructed of materials such as stone, turf,
wood, and mud. Windows weren't included in most houses, which caused the light to be very
dim. Candles and lamps had to be used for illumination. The dirt floor was covered with hay.
Limited furniture was available to the Vikings. The head of the household might have a bed and
a chair.
Food
 Fish, porridge, and barley bread were staples of the Viking diet. Women used herbs and spices
to season food. Wheat bread was considered a luxury. All Vikings drank beer because clean
fresh water wasn't available. Men hunted deer and bears which were prepared to be eaten.
Clothes
 Women's outfits consisted of a long dress and a tunic. Once they were married, women wore
headscarves. Men wore wool shirts and trousers. They also wore tunics and leather belts. During
the winter, cloaks were popular. Everyone wore leather shoes. Vikings liked long hair and
jewelry.
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European Feudalism 6th Century
European Feudalism
Feudalism developed in Western Europe at around 800 C.E. from the remnants of the Western
Roman Empire. As a result of central authority being unable to perform its functions and prevent
the rise of local powers, this decentralized organization formed. It is believed by some historians
that the system was first initiated in France by the Normans from the time they first settled there.
Many remarkable things were still accomplished during this era. For example, Monk
Missionaries converted the Europeans and united Europe into Christendom, giving the region a
common religion. This allowed for the Pope to become a political power. Also, Charlemagne
introduced the importance of education. This is significant because it provided Europe with a
common language: Latin. Together, these two things began to re-civilize Europe.
The System of Feudalism
When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 C.E., a state of chaos encompassed Western
Europe for many centuries. Essentially, the people of Western Europe needed some form of a
political system to defend them. Thus, feudalism developed. The system literally accounted for
all aspects of a society, aside from religion. Firstly, the King was in complete control. He owned
a large land mass and leased it to trustworthy men called Vassals. The catch was that they had to
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swear an oath to remain faithful to the King at all times. The Vassals were wealthy, powerful,
and had complete control of their land, called a manor. They had to provide lodging and food for
the King and his court when they traveled around the country. They established their own system
of justice, minted their own money, and set their own taxes. However, the Vassals had to serve
on the royal council, pay rent, and provide the King with military service when he demanded it.
The Barons did this by leasing their land out to knights, who would fight for him, and thus, the
king. Although not as rich as the Vassals, Knights were quite wealthy. The Knights kept as much
of the land as they wished for their own personal use and distributed the rest to serfs. Serfs had to
provide the Knight with free labor, food, and service whenever it was demanded. Serfs had no
rights, were never allowed to leave the Manor, and had to ask their Lord's permission before they
could marry. Serfs were the majority of people, and their lives were wretched. Feudalism was a
social hierarchy, a political system, and an economic system, all in one. The beauty of the system
is that it achieved self-sufficiency. It was the giving up of freedom in exchange for protection.
However, there was absolutely no mobility, no time for learning, and no intellectual
advancements. Because people constantly feared for their lives, there wasn’t any leisure time;
society couldn’t grow.
Feudalism and the spread of Christianity
In 687 C.E., Pepin of Heristal, a Merovingian ruler, united the Frankish territories and centered
his kingdom in Belgium and other Rhine regions. His son, Charles Martel, took over after he
died and formed an alliance with the Church which helped the Merovingian Dynasty (and
Christianity) to expand into Germany. Pepin the Short succeeded him and strengthened the
alliance between Benedictine missionaries and Frankish expansion. Benedictine missionaries
completed the conversion of England begun by St. Gregory the Great. Also, Irish monks
established early-medieval art. The greatest surviving creation of these monks is the Book of
Kells, a Gospel book of decorative art. It marks one of the lowest points in Europe’s history,
leading all the way up until the Renaissance in the 14th century. Its demise was triggered by the
Crusades because the Crusades called for people to leave their homes and fight. Since Feudalism
was based on non-movement, it collapsed. Knights, soldiers, peasants, and pilgrims left their
homes and migrated along European roads and trails, bringing back with them stories of
differing cultures. They began to implement their architecture and advances in medicine.
Feudalism and the Catholic Church
The only force that was powerful enough to unite an extremely disorganized group of people was
the Roman Catholic Church. For the time being, religion was very important. From birth to
death, whether one was a peasant, a serf, a noble, a lord, or a King, life was all about church.
Various religious institutions became important, rich, and powerful. This is because life sucked
during the Middle Ages. Times were tough, and they looked toward God to make it better.
Because of this, society basically attempted to structure itself politically on a religious basis.
Often times, religion in government is effective, but if it’s the only thing, it won’t work well. The
proof is in the Middle Ages. Religion in government is nice because it promotes morality. It,
moreover, tells the people which is right and which is wrong. Religion is used as means for
control. But when one begins to think for him/herself, all of the sudden, religion isn’t as
effective. When people began to think about themselves and the amount of potential they had,
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society changed for the better. This idea, known as humanism, was the basis of the Renaissance.
Moving back, after the Roman Empire dissipated, the idea of Europe as one large church-state
arose, called Christendom. Christendom consisted of two distinct groups of representatives: the
sacerdotium (ecclesiastical hierarchy) and the imperium (secular leaders). Supposedly, these two
groups were complements of each other, attending to people's spiritual and temporal needs,
respectively. The Pope was considered higher in status than the emperor in those two areas. But,
the emperors often attempted to regulate the Church. The church, in turn, not only owned cities
and armies but also attempted to regulate the matters of the government as well.
Charlemagne
Pepin's son, Carolus Magnus (Charlemagne), succeeded his father to become one of the most
important rulers in medieval history. His empire was known as the Carolingian dynasty, and it
included the greater section of central Europe, northern Italy, and central Italy, in addition to
realms already conquered by Frankish rule. Charlemagne's ingenious system of government
divided the vast realm into different regions, ruled by local rulers, who were overseen by
representatives of Charlemagne's own court. In addition, to aid expansion and management of
this vast kingdom, Charlemagne promoted, what was later called, the "Carolingian Renaissance."
Prior to this revival of learning, practically the entire region (excluding England) was illiterate
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due to the fall of the Roman Empire. The sub-director of this "Renaissance" was Anglo-Saxon
Benedictine Alcuin, who received his learning from a student of Bede. Alcuin set up schools,
made sure that classical Latin texts were copied, and developed a new handwriting. On
Christmas Day, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the Pope in Rome. This event showed
independence in Western culture that was based upon Western Christianity and Latin linguistics.
Charlemagne established schools and monasteries everywhere. This had an enormous impact and
probably would have altered history forever had he left competent successors to continue on his
legacy. His sole surviving son, Louis the Pious, divided his new kingdom between his own three
sons, who engaged in civil war. Charlemagne's united realm was invaded by Scandinavian
Vikings, Hungarians, and Muslims during these civil wars.
European Feudalism
Background to the Feudal Age
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Europe after the Empire
Roman Empire gone but city of Rome and the Papacy (Pope) survive
700- 1492 Spain is conquered by Umayyad Muslims and Cordova is founded
700-1200 Vikings conquering Northern Europe
Central Europe is mostly barbarians (Goths, Franks, Vandals, Anglos, Saxons)
Central Europe Overview 500- 1450
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Monk missionaries convert Europeans and unite Europe into Christendom
Most people’s lives are "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” (Thomas Hobbes)
Franks become the dominant group in Europe until Crusades
Crusades bring knowledge, trade and culture to Europe
Castles, Cathedrals and Christianity grow towns until Renaissance begins
The Rise of the Franks
The Merovingian Family controls France
450 – 687CE
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496 – Clovis, King of Franks makes his tribe the first to accept Christianity.
"Merovingian" dynasty, unites central Europe somewhat with improved religion and law
systems
Clovis being baptized by Saint Remi at Cathedral of Reims, France
Muslim threat to Christianity and the Franks
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The Carolingian Dynasty takes over
687 – c. 875
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Charles Martel 714-741
In 732, defeated the Muslims at Battle of Tours and stopped their advance in the West.
A Beautiful Love Story: Pepin and Berthe
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Charles Martel’s son was Pépin le Bref (Pepin = Pipin the Short?).
Pipin married Berthe au Grand Pied (Bertha Big Foot).
Pepin (at Pope’s request) defeated the Lombards of Italy and gave Italy to Pope
For his reward, Pipin was re-crowned “King of the Franks and Patrician of the Romans”
by Pope Stephen II at Paris in 754.
The Papacy retained control of them until 1870.
Oh, by the way, Pepin the Short and Bertha the Big Foot had a son…
Charles the Great "Charlemagne“768-814.
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“He was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (sevenfeet tall). His head was round and well-formed, his eyes very large and vivacious, his
nose a little long, his hair white, and his face jovial. His appearance was always stately
and very dignified, whether he was standing or sitting. …. His gait was firm, his whole
carriage manly, and his voice clear.” Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, (New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1880), pp. 56-7.
Unites Europe
Fought constantly for 25 years and conquered/united central Europe
Pope Leo III crowned him Imperator Romanorum (“Emperor of the Romans”) on
Christmas Day, 800.
Holy Roman Empire begins here
Charlemagne & Education
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Charlemagne promoted education for clergy and people
Literacy increased especially for monks and wealthy
Brought in teachers from Byzantium
Charlemagne & Christianity
founded monastery schools taught in Latin = universal language for Europe
Built and repaired churches,
universalized the liturgy of Rome = unity for Europe
instituted tithes to support the clergy
Charlemagne’s Empire Ends
At his death, the empire was divided into three kingdoms ruled by his sons.
They did not rule well and the Empire collapsed by 900
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Charlemagne lasting impact
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Holy Roman Empire,
Latin common language,
common religion,
Pope as political power
Art
gold and silver sculpture
book art.
Intricate designs common
The Rise of Feudalism
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landowners had their own armies and resources
Rather than fight each other constantly small landowners put themselves under the
protection of the large estates
Practices of Feudalism
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Fief holding
A fief is a hereditary position with land and peasants
In order to keep a fief, a lord had to be able to protect his land.
A lord could give one of his vassals a fief.
Primogeniture
The land went to the eldest son.
Relief
Taxes paid by vassals to their lord.
The Three Estates
The Church = 1st Estate
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The greatest weapon of the church was spiritual.
The threat of interdict could bring kings to their knees
The church was able to establish two customs to extend its power over the nobles.
No fighting during holy days
No fighting on holy ground
The Nobility = 2nd Estate
Lords and vassals
 Lord provided vassal a grant known as a benefice, usually grants of land often called fiefs
- enabled the vassal to devote time and energy to serve the lord
- provided resources to maintain horses and military equipment
Vassals owed lord loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel, and military service
- The lord-vassal relationship was not entirely new, but became dominant
now
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The Peasants = 3rd Estate
1. Serfs
a. Slaves and peasants took agricultural tasks, frequently intermarried
b. Free peasants often turned over themselves and their lands to a lord for protection
c. Serfs as an intermediate category emerged about the mid-7th century
2. Serfs' obligations
a. Labor service and rents in kind
b. Could not move to other lands without permission
c. Obligations fulfilled, serfs had right to work on land and pass it to heirs
3. Manors
a. Principal form of agricultural organization
b. A manor was a large estate, controlled by the lord and his deputies
c. Many lords had the authority to execute serfs for serious misconduct
d. Manors were largely self-sufficient communities
The Economy of Feudal Europe
1. Agriculture
a. Agricultural production suffered from repeated invastions
b. Small wooden plows of Mediterranean farmers did not work well in the north
c. Heavy plows
Heavy plows appeared in the 6th century, could turn soils
Became common from the 8th century, production increased
d. Cultivation of new lands, watermills, and rotating crops
2. A rural society
a. Agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities
b. Towns were few and sparsely populated
3. Trade
a. Trade and urban centers began to develop by the 10th century
b. Trade took place in Mediterranean, North Sea, and Black Sea
Population
In 200 C.E., European population stood at 36 million
In 400 C.E., 31 million
In 600 C.E., 26 million
In 800 C.E., edged up to 29 million
In 900 C.E., 30 million
By 1000 C.E., back to 36 million
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Economic Growth and Social Development
A.
B.
Growth of the Agricultural Economy
1.
Expansion of arable land
a.
Population pressure by the late 10th century
b.
Serfs and monks began to clear forests and swamps
c.
Lords encouraged such efforts for high taxes
2.
Improved agricultural techniques
a.
Crop rotation methods
b.
Cultivation of beans increased - enriched the land
c.
More domestic animals - also enriched the land
d.
Books and treatises on household economy and agricultural
methods
3.
New tools and technology
a.
Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows
b.
Use of horseshoe and horse collar, increased land under
cultivation
4.
New food supplies
a.
Before 1000, European diet - grains
b.
After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, and
legumes
5.
Population growth: from 29 to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300
C.E.
The Revival of Towns and Trade
1.
Urbanization: Peasants and serfs flocked to cities and towns
2.
Textile production
a.
Northern Italian cities and Flanders became centers of wool
textiles
b.
Trade in wool products fueled economic development of
Europe
3.
Mediterranean trade
a.
Beside Amalfi and Venice, other cities also became important
b.
Italian merchants established colonies in Mediterranean and
Black Sea
4.
The Hanseatic League
a.
The Hansa - an association of trading cities, dominated trade of
northern Europe
b.
Major European rivers linked Hansa to the Mediterranean
5.
Improved business techniques
a.
Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants
b.
Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial
investment
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C.
Social Changes
1.
The three estates
a.
"Those who pray" - clergy of Roman Catholic church, the
spiritual estate
b.
"Those who fight" - feudal nobles, the military estate
c.
"Those who work" - mostly peasants and serfs
2.
Chivalry
a.
Widely-recognized code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles
b.
Church officials directed chivalry toward Christian faith and
piety
3.
Troubadours
a.
Aristocratic women promoted chivalric values by patronizing
troubadours
b.
Troubadours drew inspiration from the love poetry of Muslim
Spain
4.
Eleanor of Aquitaine
a.
Most celebrated woman of her day
b.
Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement,
and romantic love
c.
Code of chivalry and romantic poetry softened manners of
rough warriors
5.
Independent cities
a.
Expansion of cities fit awkwardly in the feudal framework
b.
Urban populations were increasingly able to resist demands of
feudal nobles
6.
Guilds
a.
Established standards of quality for manufactured goods
b.
Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers
7.
Urban women
a.
Towns and cities offered fresh opportunities for women
b.
Women worked in a wide range of occupations
c.
Most guilds admitted women, and women also had their own
guilds
Feudal Warfare
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Background
Fall of the Roman Empire
Several century process
Last emperor deposed in 476 AD
Legions that had “maintained civilization” recalled/disbanded.
No one entity to assume the empire’s role
Tribes are most viable political entity
Loose coalitions of tribes
Militia based warfare
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“Center” of Europe shifts from present-day Italy toward France, Germany, and,
eventually, England.
Military Aspects of Feudalism
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Dispersed population
Lack of opportunities for “unit” training increases importance of individual skills
Cavalry supplants infantry
Flexibility: fight mounted or on foot
Fortified areas/castles
Protection from Vikings/raiders
Levy cannot cope with raiders
Vikings: amphibious, maneuver warfare, looted and pillaged…..
Stratification of society
THE FRANKS
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Germanic Tribes; ancestors of today’s French
Moved into Roman Gaul about 460
Infantry-centric
Relied more on individual courage than organization or skill
Carry “Francisca” or battle ax
Originally no social “classes”; similar to American Indian
Comitatus: leader’s bodyguards; first among equals
Clovis initiated levy system in 496.
Each house owes 1 man to the nation for service.
Comitatus evolves into Knights.
Levy and cost of weapons begin stratifying society.
Frankish Cavalry
Stirrup introduced in early 800s.
Began shift in focus that ended with cavalry as the primary arm by 900.
Tactically sound, but operationally and strategically weak
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“On the whole, therefore, it is easier and less costly to wear out a Frankish army by
skirmishes, protracted operations…, and the cutting off of supplies, than to attempt to
destroy it in a single blow.” Byzantine manual
BASICS OF Battle of HASTINGS
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October 1066
Harold defeats other invaders in N. England.
William conducts amphibious landing in S. England.
Harold countermarches to meet William.
Normans under William have cavalry, infantry, and archers while English army (Harold)
is almost all infantry.
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Norman cavalry fails to penetrate English infantry shield, but the English wings react to
cavalry falling back, move toward them and are destroyed (twice). Normans then fire
missiles and weaken the English until they are vulnerable to cavalry attack.
Crusades
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Mission to spread Christianity to the Muslim world
Economic interests also fueled
Crossbow developed
Trading capital for labor
Required transition from chain mail to armor.
First Crusade (1095-1099)
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Acquired “Holy Land”/Jerusalem.
Muslim light cavalry versus European heavy cavalry and infantry
Some victories, but European success limited by logistical shortcomings
Fighting Saladin
Competing strategies
Combat versus logistics
Few serious casualties, but Europeans still surrendered
Lack of cohesion
Inability to maneuver
No food or water = no morale
Scorched earth
Avoiding battle
Richard I
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Set out to recover Jerusalem
Developed new defensive tactic to deal with horse archers
Pikes in front
Ranks of crossbowmen
Offensive
Combined-arms task organization
Delayed action to train together
Sea-based logistics
Light-fighters
Contingency plan
Smarter than predecessors, but still unable to retake Jerusalem.
End of the Knight
New weapons
Longbow
Gunpowder and firearms
Heavier armor for the knight
Armor for the horse (150+ lbs)
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Crusade Results
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Weight cancelled mobility, which was the cavalry’s reason for being.
Economic changes (Europe opens to Silk Road/Indian Ocean products)
Increasing concentration of wealth led to creation of standing armies of mercenaries and
decline of levy-based armies.
Middle class arises from increased trade.
The Flavor of the Middle Ages: Inferiority and Vitality
Western Europe changed rapidly during the postclassical period, but it remained commercially
and culturally backward compared to Islam and the Byzantine Empire. But its development did
usher in certain political and cultural forms that made this civilization distinctive.
Stages of Postclassical Development
Medieval European development unfolded in two sub-periods up to about 1300. Between the 6th
and 10th centuries, chaotic conditions prevailed, despite gains made by the church and
Charlemagne’s brief empire. Then, improvements in trade and agriculture brought new strength
and diversity. Feudal monarchy developed as a stronger political form. During this period,
western Europe also developed expansionist tendencies, particularly in the Crusades.
Western Culture in the Post-Classical Era
Christian culture formed the clearest unifying element in western Europe during the postclassical centuries, although it changed as European society matured. Theologians and artists
developed distinctive expressions, although there were other philosophical and artistic currents
as Europe’s cultural creativity increased.
Changing Economic and Social Forms in the Post-Classical Centuries
With the revival of trade and agriculture, commercial ties spread through most of Western
Europe. Urban merchants
The Decline of the Medieval Synthesis
Amid problems of overpopulation and disease, post-classical Western civilization declined after
1300. The decline was evident in feudalism and the church.
Conclusion: The Post-Classical West and its Heritage – A Balance Sheet
The term “Middle Ages” suggests a backward period in Western history between the glories of
Greece, Rome, and the Renaissance. This view neglects the fact that the area had never been
integrated into a regional civilization and was building institutions and culture for the first time.
It was backward in some aspects and did not participate in world contacts as the equal of the
great Asian societies. The Middle Ages was a formative force of its own.
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The Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire unfolded as part of the larger and older Roman Empire. As this classical
framework shattered with Roman decline, the eastern provinces, which became the Byzantine Empire,
took on a life of its own, particularly from the reign of the Emperor Justinian onward. It centered on a
territory different from and smaller than the Eastern Mediterranean as Rome had defined it. This was
the result of pressures, particularly the surge of Islam throughout North Africa and the Middle East, and
popular migrations throughout the Balkans. Despite many invasions and domestic trends, the empire
flourished until the 11th century invasion by the Seljuk Turks. The collapse of the empire in Anatolia led
to repeated conflicts with Turkish border- states and spurred the Byzantines to ask the Pope for help.
The Western Crusaders reconquered some old imperial lands but eventually sacked Constantinople.
The Spread of Civilization in Eastern Europe
Christian missionaries, Byzantine conquests in the Balkans, and trade routes running through western
Russia and Ukraine created abundant contacts with portions of eastern Europe. Regional states formed.
After the creation of a state by the Varangian Swedes and its conversion to Orthodox Christianity, Kiev
developed some of the formative features of Russian culture and politics. Mongol invasions ended this
period of Russian history, cutting parts of the region off from western contacts. A Turkish tribe migrated
into the Balkans, intermarried with local Slavs, warred with Byzantium but converted to Orthodox
Christianity; the Bulgars became the empire’s chief Balkan rival and threat.
Conclusion: The End of an Era in Eastern Europe
After Byzantium and Russia fell under foreign rule, east European civilization fell on hard times at the
end of the era. The struggle to redefine a civilization after 1453 would not be easy. In the meantime, the
connection of border territories such as Poland to the west European cultural zone would deepen, while
the Balkans lay under Turkish rule. These difficulties confirmed the largely separate paths of West and
East in Europe. Western Europe remained free from outside control and, despite some new problems,
maintained a clearer vigor in politics, economics, and culture. When Eastern Europe did reemerge, it
was at a major disadvantage to the West in terms of power and economics and cultural sophistication, a
very different situation from that of the days of Byzantium and Kievan Rus.
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Judaism
Traditionally, historic Judaism was founded by Moses approximately 3,300 years ago. The patriarch
Abraham is also considered the founder of the Jewish people. But most modern scholars believe
Judaism coalesced from various associated tribes in Palestine more than 3,000 years ago.
Historically, the Judaism based on the Books of Moses, historical books, and prophetic books, which
Christians call the Old Testament, and which Jews call the Tanakh, did not come into printed existence
until around 600 BCE when the Jews were in exile in Babylon.
The earliest teachings of Judaism revolved around eretz yisrael, or the land of Israel, and geography is
central to Judaism. In the Hebrew language of the "Old Testament", whenever the scriptures speak of a
Jew entering the land, he "ascends". Whenever a Jew departs, he "descends". The Torah threatens exile
from the land as the punishment for disobedience (Deuteronomy 28). Until the last 2,000 years of exile,
the land was essential to the religion. Many of the laws of the Torah are only applicable when Israel is in
the land. To emphasize the importance of the land to the fathers, each Pesach, or Passover is ended
with the exclamation, "Next year in Jerusalem!" And have you ever wondered why hell is hot – deserts
surround Israel and the Twelve Tribes were punished for sins by God and made to wonder in the desert
for forty years under Moses. Besides, who would not want a land flowing with milk and honey as
opposed to one of heat, scorpions, and rocks?
Judaism is usually considered an ethnic religion because of its association with a specific land. The
Hebrew calendar is based on the agricultural cycle of Palestine. In that autumn is when the grains were
harvested, the two holiest of Jewish holidays, Rosh Hashanah (New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of
Atonement) are both autumnal holidays associated with plenty and the end. Other holidays such as
Sukkot (Feast of Booths) celebrate the Final Gathering of the Fruits, and prayers, especially for rain are
offered. And because of the association of the human body with dirt and dust, the dead must be
interred within one day of death.
The Torah mandated many practices, which were dictated by the environment. For example, the
prohibitions against animals classed as unclean, such as pigs, affects what animals are raised. The very
strict separation of meat from dairy products affects the handling and distribution of food products.
Both milk and pork spoil quickly in hot climates. Historically, the Torah mandated a total rest of all
farmland throughout Israel every seven years. In fact, the failure to observe this commandment is cited
by the rabbis as being one of the contributing reasons for the first exile.
Although Judaism is primarily an ethnic religion, it does have universalizing elements. In the Second
Temple era (approximately 2,000 years ago) there was active proselytization. However, the political
atmosphere of the times eventually led Jewish leaders to discourage further proselytization. However,
converts have made significant contributions to the faith. Judaism was the first major monotheistic
religion. This monotheism eventually gave birth to two other world religions; namely, Christianity and
Islam. The Jewish people were given the mission by God in the Hebrew Bible (referred to as the "Old
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Testament" by Christians) to be a blessing to the world. The three major tenets of Judaism are God,
Torah, and Israel.
The books of the Tanakh, or the “Old Testament” are recognized as canon. Tanakh is an acronym for the
three Jewish divisions of the Bible: Torah, the five books of Moses containing the Jewish Law; Nevi'im,
the books of the prophets; and Ketuvim, the books more commonly known as "the Writings" such as the
Psalms and the Proverbs. The Torah takes central stage in Jewish doctrine and way of life: it contains the
613 commandments that God gave to Israel (not the Christian ten). The Talmud Bavli, or Babylonian
Talmud, is also authoritative. Various works on Halakhah, or Jewish Law, such as the Shulkhan Arukh are
held in high regard.
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Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity arose as part of the general Christianity observed throughout the Roman Empire.
From the beginning, it co-existed with the Roman Catholic tradition, the main difference being its use of
Greek instead of Latin for worship. Gradually, the Church of Rome began to assume preeminence over
the rest of Christianity, but not necessarily with the acknowledgment or cooperation of the eastern
churches.
Eventually, doctrine differences coupled with questions of papal authority led to the "Great Schism" of
1054, when Rome excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularios. Thus, the
question of when Orthodox Christianity was founded depends on who one asks. An Orthodox Christian
will tell you 33 AD, but a Roman Catholic will say 1054 AD.
Many of the Orthodox churches consider themselves "Catholic" and some will have the word in their
official titles. In Greek, the word “catholic” means universal. The Eastern Orthodox Church was the "One
Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church" of the Byzantine Empire. The Christians that follow the Eastern
Orthodox religion follow the doctrine defined by the first seven ecumenical councils. They recognize
Christ as the head of the Church, and their doctrines are founded on the Holy Scriptures, holy tradition,
and the decisions of the ecumenical councils. Others prefer the term orthodox because Eastern Rite
Christians feel they more closely represent Christ’s intended church on earth.
The Church is also known as "Eastern Orthodoxy" because the most Orthodox are from the eastern
regions of Europe and Asia, as in Russia, Greece, the Balkans, and the Coptics of Egypt.
Orthodox doctrine agrees with that of most of the other high liturgy churches as Roman Catholicism and
the Anglican Church. In fact it is often hard to see how they differ. The major cause of the Great Schism
was the addition of the “filoque” to the Nicene Creed by the Roman Church. The Nicene Creed stated
that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, whereas the filoque teaches that the Holy Spirit
proceeds from both the Father and the Son. To Western Christians, this has resulted in a stronger notion
of the Trinity of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit as co-equal and co-eternal, whereas the
Orthodox fell God the Father and the Son existed before the Spirit and created it.
Another issue of contention with the Roman Church is the authority of the Pope over
all of Christendom, with which the Orthodox could not agree. Orthodox have always felt that while the
Pope was the single most important leader of the Church, first among equals so as to speak, he alone
could not speak for the Church. God spoke through the general Church councils and synods and his Holy
Spirit guided the Church councils, not the Pope. Consequently, whereas the Roman Catholics feel the
Pope is infallible, the Orthodox feel the Councils will not err religiously. Another distinct trait of
Orthodoxy is the veneration of icons, with which many western Christians cannot agree. While Roman
Catholics also venerate icons, at the time of the Great Schism in 1054, many Orthodox Christians
opposed the use of icons in worship. Today they accept them. Other differences between Orthodox and
Catholics include the Orthodox tradition of married priests, which Roman Catholics discontinued around
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1000, and the use of the local or vernacular language in worship, which until 1964, Roman Catholics did
not allow.
Orthodox Christians recognize the New Testament and the Old Testament. In addition to these
scriptures, the Church recognizes several other books as canon, not recognized by Protestants and
Catholics. These books are known by Protestants as the Apocrypha, and to the Church as the
Deuterocanonicals. The Orthodox also use four more books of the Bible than do Roman Catholics.
Furthermore, Church tradition as revealed to the people through the councils is regarded as additional
sources of divine truth.
Because Orthodox Christianity arose in areas with strong political leaders, it did not develop the
independence of the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the church was often considered a department or
a bureau under the political influence of the emperors or tsars. Consequently, the Orthodox did not
develop the exclusive monopolies over social welfare or educational institutions, which occurred in
medieval Western Europe. Moreover, the clergy did not possess a monopoly on intellectual resources
because the state and private enterprises maintained schools for the wealthy and talented. Only in
areas where political authority collapsed through invasion or conquest, such as in Russia following the
Mongol invasion or in Ethiopia, which was cut off from the Christian world by Muslim control of Egypt,
did the Orthodox churches ever develop the level of power Roman Catholic clergy possessed. And unlike
the Roman Catholics and after their wars with the Monophysites, the Orthodox rarely launched crusades
against non-Christians (Jews are a major exception). In fact, the spread of Orthodoxy around the world
was more often as not accomplished by missionaries, merchants, and movement of the already
Orthodox to new lands to settle.
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Roman Catholic Christianity
There are two central ideas to Roman Catholicism: the Church as a teaching authority and as a
sacramental agent. The Church as a teaching authority means that the Church is the ultimate
interpreting agent of the Bible, in the same way the US Supreme Court is of the U.S. Constitution. To
accomplish this, the Church has a pope, who speaks officially as the leader of Christianity on matters of
faith and morals. When speaking officially, the pope is considered infallible or unable to religiously make
a mistake. The Church as a sacramental agent means that the church institutes sacraments for its
adherents so that they can live spiritually. Consequently, the Church’s influence and the centrality of its
role in life are more pronounced for Catholics than for most other religion except perhaps Islam.
Roman Catholics recognize the New Testament and the Old Testament, but feel that the New Testament
is more important than the Old Testament. In addition to these scriptures, the Church recognizes more
books as part of the Bible than do the Protestants. The books are known by Protestants as the
Apocrypha and to the Church as the Deuterocanonicals. Furthermore, tradition, canon law, and the
infallible authority of the Pope are regarded as sources of divine truth.
The Church believes that seven sacraments are needed to help Catholics live the kind of life Jesus would
have wanted and these sacraments spiritually parallel the great moments and needs of human life. The
Church sees Christ as having explicitly joined the sacramental agency of the Church to its teaching
authority in his closing commission to his disciples.
These sacraments include:
1. Baptism: As birth brings a child into the natural world, baptism draws the infant into the
supernatural order of existence by planting God's first special grace in its soul. Baptism also washes
away the original sin a person is born with due to Adam's fall from grace in the Garden of Eden.
2. Penance: If one errs, or sins, penance is needed as a step to take so that one may be restored to the
human community and divine fellowship. The Church teaches that if one confesses one's sins to
God, which should be in the presence of one of God's delegates, a priest, and truly repents for the
sins committed, the sins are forgiven.
3. Holy Communion: Also called Holy Eucharist, the Mass, and the Lord's Supper, it is seen as the
central sacrament of the seven. In Catholicism, the Mass is viewed as a reenactment of Christ's Last
Supper with his disciples, not as a commemoration of the supper as viewed in Protestantism. The
Church teaches that the consecrated bread and wine become Christ's human body and blood, and
are actually present during the service even though no actual physical change takes place in the
bread and wine. Rather, they are transubstantiated into the actual body and the actual blood of
Christ.
4. Confirmation: When a child reaches the age of reason (between 12 and 14), the child is
strengthened for mature reflection and responsible action as a soldier of God through an act of
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consecration. At the time of confirmation, the child takes on the name of a saint of his or her own
choosing.
5. Marriage: Sanctified marriage is the joining of two adults with the grace of God for lifelong
companionship and procreation.
6. Holy Orders: One receives this sacrament when one decides to dedicate his or her life entirely to
God. When a man undergoes this sacrament, he may become either a priest or a monk. He is
considered married to the Church and is bound by the same laws as a married person. A Roman
Catholic priest is not allowed to marry in the conventional sense and is bound by a vow of celibacy.
A monk is bound to live by the laws of the particular order or community in which he is a member,
and may or may not be a priest. When a woman undergoes this sacrament, she becomes a nun in
the Church and is also a bride of Christ. She is also prevented from conventional marriage and is also
bound by a vow of celibacy. Because of this celibacy, a nun or sister during the Middle Ages
frequently received the legal status of a male, with all the power and rites that entailed. And within
the Church, female clergy have powers and influence no other religion or philosophy except
Buddhism tolerates. And because the Church insists on an educated clergy, often throughout
European and world history, many of the leading scholars have been clergy. Today Catholic
universities the world over, originally instituted to train Catholic clergy and laymen, provide superior
educations.
7. Last Rites: Last rites are also called Extreme Unction and Sacrament of the Sick. This sacrament, at
the ending of one's life, closes the earthly eyes of the person and prepares the soul for its last
passage to the afterlife.
In addition to the holy days celebrated by most Christians, Roman Catholics observe a number of other
holy days and saints days. These might include special masses, fasts, or feasts. The more significant of
these are All Saints Day, Annunciation, Ascension Day, Epiphany, Feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast
of the Immaculate Conception, Good Friday, Maundy Thursday, Nativity of St. John the Baptist, and Palm
Sunday. And local Catholic Churches emphasize recognize certain national patron saints and martyrs’
days as Holy Days. The Irish’ St. Patrick’s Day on March 17 is but one famous example.
Catholicism's history began when adherents of Judaism accepted Jesus Christ as not just a prophet, but
as the Son of God and the Savior of the world. Roman Catholics believe theirs is the form of Christianity
founded by Christ and his commissioning of the Apostle Peter "as the rock on which the church is to be
built." Catholicism, which means universal, received the adjective "Roman" due to the Church's adoption
of the organizational grid of the Roman Empire and its use of Latin as a religious language. Until 1964,
Latin remained the liturgical language of all Catholics the world over. The adjective was also used
because of the tradition that Peter founded the Church in Rome and because both Peter and Paul were
reportedly martyred and buried there. Moreover, much of the hierarchy of the Church is based on
Roman social structure and political organization. While the Catholic clergy is similar to Roman judges,
Roman Catholics emphasize the role of the father as head of the family and the importance of family.
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Women are critical to the family, but have few rights outside of the family. All of these are Roman
cultural traditions.
During the first five centuries, the Church in Rome gradually assumed preeminence among the churches
of the western Mediterranean region. It came to be regarded as a kind of final court of appeal as well as
a focus of unity for the worldwide communion of churches. After the conversion of the Roman emperor
Constantine I, in the year 312, a new era for the Church began. In 314, the Edict of Milan recognized
Roman Catholicism as a legal religion and by the end of the 4th century; Roman Catholicism was made
the official religion of the Empire. The clergy received privileged status in the Empire. Constantine's
conversion also provided the Church with extraordinary opportunities for proclaiming the gospel to all
nations, usually through missionary work. Some, however, saw this as dangerous because Christian
commitment would no longer be tested by persecution, as it was before the emperor’s conversion.
Following this, a monastic movement developed in which monks became directly involved in the
missionary expansion of the Church in Ireland, Scotland, Gaul, and England between the fifth and
seventh centuries.
In the fourth and fifth centuries, there was a controversy over the relationship between the one God,
Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit. It led to the first major schism in Christianity. The Council of
Chalcedon in 451 CE “ended” the controversy by stating that "Jesus is at once divine and human. The
divine and the human are united in one person, without confusion or change, without division or
separation.” This separated the Catholic Latin and Greek traditions from the Monophysite Christian
traditions in Egypt, Southwest Asia, and the Caucasus regions. Both Latin and Greek Catholic traditions
mercilessly persecuted the Monophysites, who eventually sought protection from the Muslisms.
When the western provinces of the Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, Germanic tribes settled the area; of
the old Roman institutions, only the Pope and remained effective forces for order and civilization. In the
ensuing centuries, the clergy Christianized the Germanic invaders and cemented ties between a
distinctly Roman form of Christianity and western European culture. Eventually, monks and missionaries
converted Scandinavians, Magyars, and many of the Western and Southern Slavs to Latin Christianity.
During the same period, the Church established and ran most educational establishments and provided
the only social welfare such as orphanages, hospitals, and poor relief. And for ambitious men and
women, who were not nobles, the Church provided the only avenue for social advancement. In an age
when few could read and write, and in an era where intellectual pursuits were considered suspect by
the aristocracy, the clergy generally were the only literate people. Consequently, they became official
court scribes. Millions of Europeans sought out the Church, which was enriched by their talents and gifts
of land and money.
A major tenet of Catholicism, in fact of all Christian sects, is the belief that God gave an unfinished earth
to the humans to finish perfecting. Consequently, humans are expected to subdue and develop the land.
This meant clearing forests, planting fields, and improving the land. During the Middle Ages and
throughout its history, Catholic establishments especially monasteries took this belief literally and began
a process of settling in the wilderness and making the land productive.
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