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Grammar Notebook Part One Verbs Verb Facts: The Most Important Words in Any Sentence • What is a verb? – Denotes an action or a state of being – Essential to the sentence because it’s what is happening! Examples: Types of Verbs • Helping Verbs: – In English, helping verbs tell when a verb is happening ( was, is, had,have et al.) – Latin never uses helping verbs; we use endings to show when a verb happens • Example – Rex was laughing. Rex ridebat. – Rex will laugh. Rex ridebit. Types of Verbs • Linking verbs: show a state of being and link two ideas – Acts like a chain or an equals mark (=) – The most common linking verb is sum ,esse, fui, futurus in all its lovely forms – Example • Rex is a boy. (Rex = boy) Rex est puer Types of Verbs • Transitive verb: action verb which takes a direct object ( a noun that answers who or what after the verb) – The action transfers to another word – Example • Rex hits Claudius. Rex Claudium pulsat. • Intransitive verb: action verb that cannot take an object – The action stops at the verb and does not cross over to a noun. – Example • Rex is sleeping. Rex dormit. Agreement • A singular verb must have a singular subject; a plural verb must have a plural subject. – Compound subjects are usually treated as plural subjects – Examples • The girl is running. Puella currit • The girls are running. Puellae currunt. Principal Parts • Most verb have four principal parts, always listed in a specific order. These parts are used to make all the other verb forms. • Notice the patterns – 1st principal part ends with “o” • Used for present tense – 2nd ends with “re” • Present infinitive; used for present, imperfect, future – 3rd end with “I” • Perfect active; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active – 4th ends with “um” or “us” • Perfect participle; used for perfect, pluperfect, future perfect passive Conjugations • The conjugation of a verb is determined by the second principal part (infinitive) – ARE = 1st – *ERE = 2nd (1st pp. will end with “eo”) – ERE = 3rd – IO, ERE = 3rd IO – IRE = 4th Qualities of a Verb • Number – Singular or plural • Person – 1st = I, we – 2nd = you – 3rd = he,she, it, they Qualities of a verb • Voice: active or passive – Refers to relationship between subject and verb – Active voice : subject performs the verb • Aurelia sells the slave. Aurelia vendit servum – Passive Voice: The subject does not perform the verb but the verb happens to the subject • The slave is sold by Aurelia. Servus venditur ab Aurelia • The person or thing doing the verb goes into the ablative. – No preposition for things (means), “a, ab” for people (personal agent) – Miles vulneratur gladio. – Miles vulneratur ab amico. Qualities of a Verb • Mood – Indicative = states a fact or asks a question – Imperative = makes a command – Subjunctive = special clauses • Tense – Shows when the verb happens – Present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect Tense Continuum • Pluperfect: in the past before something else in the past (August 24) • Perfect : completed in the past (august 25) • Present : now (august 26) • Future perfect: before something else in the future (august 27) • Future : in the future (august 28) • Imperfect: in the past over a span of time ( august 24 and August 25) Tense Continuum • Pluperfect : He had taken a shower before he ate breakfast • Perfect: He ate breakfast • Present: He is walking to the car. • Future Perfect: He will have driven twenty miles before he returns home. • Future: He will return home • Imperfect: He was driving to school behind a very slow bus. Verb Bases • Present Tense : Use infinitive – Exception : 1st sing passive use 1st pp. – Are = remove the “re” • Exception : 1st person singular remove the “are” active – *ere = remove the “re” – Ere = remove “ere” , add “I” • Exception : 3rd person pl add “u” instead of “I” – Io, -ere = remove “ere” , add “I” • Exception: 3rd person pl add “iu” – Ire = remove “re” • Exception: 3rd person pl. remove “re” , add “u” Verb bases • Imperfect : use infinitive – Are = remove “re” – *ere = remove “re” – Ere = remove “re” – Io, ere = remove “ere” add “ie” – Ire = remove “re” add “e” Verb bases • Future: Use infinitive – Are = remove “re” – *ere = remove “re” – Ere = remove “ere” – Io, ere = remove “ere”, add “I” • Exception : 2nd person singular don’t add “i” • Ire = remove “re” Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect active • 3rd principal part minus “I” – Usually leaves one of the following before the ending –U –V –S –X Perfect, pluperfect, future perfect passive • 4th principal part minus “us” or “um” Present active Indicative • Endings – – – – – – o=I s = you t = he, she, it mus = we tis = you pl. nt = they 1st sing 2nd sing 3rd sing 1st pl 2nd pl 3rd pl • Translations – Verb __________, is, am, are ____ing, do, does ____ Present passive indicative • Endings – – – – – – R = I am _____ed Ris = you are ______ed Tur = he, she, it is _______ed Mur = we are _______ed Mini = you pl. are ______ed Ntur = they are _______ed • Translations – Is, am, are ______ed, – Is, am, are being _______ed Imperfect active Indicative • Endings – – – – – – – Bam = I Bas = you Bat = he, she,, it Bamus = we Batis = you pl. Bant = they Translations must show action over a period of time in the past, habitual or continuous • Was/were, used to, kept on, began to, past tense Imperfect passive indicative • Endings – – – – – – – Bar = I Baris = you Batur = he, she, it Bamur = we Bamini = you pl Bantur = they Translations: • Was/were being ______ed, kept on being _______ed, used to be _______ed, began to be ______ed Future Active Indicative for –are, *ere (1st and 2nd conjugations • Endings – – – – – – Bo Bis Bit Bimus Bitis Bunt I will you will he, she, it will we will you pl. will they will • Translations: will, shall • Must show action to occur in the future Future Passive Indicative for –are, *ere • Endings – Bor – Beris – Bitur – Bimur – Bimini – Buntur I will be -----ed you will be ----ed he, she, it will be-----ed we will be-----ed you pl. will be ----ed they will be-----ed • Translations: will be -----ed, shall be ----ed Future Active Indicative for ere, ire (3rd, 3rd io, 4th) • Endings – am – es* – et* – emus* – etis* – ent I will you will he, she, it will we will you pl. will they will • Translation : will, shall Future Passive Indicative for –ere, -ire (3rd, 3rd io, 4th) • Endings – ar – eris – etur – emur – emini – entur I will be ----ed you will be ----ed he, she, it will be ----ed we will be -----ed you pl will be -----ed they will be -----ed – Translations: will be _____ed, shall be ____ed Perfect Active Indicative • Endings – – – – – – i isti` it imus istis erunt i you he, she, it we you pl they • Usually preceded by u,v,s,x from the 3rd pp. • Translations: ----ed, past tense, has/have ---ed, did – – Must show action completed in the past Perfect Passive Indicative • 4th principal part minus “us” – Singular • -us,-a,-um sum • -us, -a, -um es • -us,-a, -um est • • • • Plural -i, -ae, -a sumus i, -ae, -a estis i, -ae, -a sunt I was _____ed, have been ___ed you were ____ed, have been __ed he, she, it was ___ed, has been __ed we were –ed, have been –ed you were ---ed, have been –ed they were –ed, have been --ed • The 4th principal part must be adjusted so that it agrees with the subject in gender, number, and case. – Marcus was wounded – Marcus vulneratus est. – Silvia was wounded. – Silvia vulnerata est. – The men were wounded. – Viri vulnerati sunt Pluperfect Active Indicative • Endings – – – – – – eram eras erat eramus eratis erant I you he, she, it we you pl. they • Translation: had ----ed • Must show action completed in the past before another action • The endings must be attached to the 3rd pp minus “I”; cannot be by itself or it’s the imperfect of sum – Ambulaveram in silva. I had walked in the woods. – Eram in silva. I was in the woods. Pluperfect passive Indicative • 4th principal part minus “us” or “um” • Singular – -us, a, um eram – -us,-a, -um eras – -us,-a, -um erat I you he, she, it • Plural – -i,-ae, -a eramus we – -i, -ae, -a eratis you pl. – -i, -ae, -a erant they • Translation: had been -----ed • Fourth pp. must be adjusted to agree with subject in gender, number, and case – Marcus had been seen. – Marcus visus erat. – Cornelia had been seen. – Cornelia visa erat. Future Perfect Indicative • Endings – – – – – – ero eris erit erimus eritis erint I will have you will have he,she, it will have we will have you pl will have they will have • Translations: will have ----ed, shall have ----ed • Must show action that occurs in the future before something else in the future • Frequently used in conditional (if) clauses Future perfect passive • Endings 4th principal part minus “us” plus – – – – – – – – Singular -us,-a, -um ero -us,-a, -um eris -us, -a, -um erit Plural -i, -ae,-a erimus -i. –ae, -a eritis -i, -ae, -a erunt I you he,she, it we you pl. they • Translations: will have been ---ed, shall have been –ed • 4th pp. must be adjusted to agree with subject in gender, number, and case Pronoun Subjects for Active • • • • • • O/M/I = I S/ISTI = you T= he,she, it MUS = we TIS = you pl NT = they Tense signs and translations for active • BA = was,were,usedto, kept on, began to • BO, BI, BU, A, E = will, shall • U,S,V,X, followed by I, ERU = past tense, have, has, did • ERA = had • ERO,ERI = will have, shall have • A,E,I,U = is, am, are, do, does Pronoun subjects for passive • • • • • • R = I RIS = you TUR = he, she, it MUR = we MINI = you pl NTUR = they Tense sign and translation for passive • BA = was/were being ---ed, kept on being --ed, used to be –ed, began to be ---ed (imperfect) • BI, BE, BU (are, *ere) or A, E (ere, ire) = will be ---ed (future) • A, I, E, U = are,is, am ----ed (present) Passive Person Part One • Us = masc sing • A = fem sing • Um = neuter sing • I = masc. Pl. • Ae = fem pl • A = neut pl Passive Tense Sign for Two Part Verbs: Part Two • Su or e – Was/were -----ed – Has/have been -----ed • Era – Had been ---ed • Eri – Will have been ----ed • • • • Part three m/o = I S = you T = he,she, it • Mus = we • Tis = you pl • Nt = they Irregular verbs • Use the personal endings (o/m,s,t,mus, tis, nt or r,ris,tur,mur,mini, ntur) – Base is the irregular part • Mainly irregular in the present tense: – Sometimes irregular in future and imperfect – No irregular verbs in perfect, pluperfect, future perfect Irregular Verbs • Very commonly used verbs – Sum, esse, fui, futurus • To be: linking verb – Possum, posse, potui • Be able, can • Always used with an infinitive – Volo, velle, volui • To wish – Fero, ferre, tuli, latum • To bring, to carry – Malo, malle, malui • To prefer – Nolo, nolle, nolui • Don’t want – Eo, ire, ivi, itus • go Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus • Most common verb in Latin • Linking verb • Irregular in the present indicative and subjunctive, imperfect indicative, future indicative, and in its principal parts • Regular in perfect, pluperfect, future perfect both indicative and subjunctive – Base = fu Irregular verbs: Sum, esse, fui, futurus • Present indicative – sum – es – est Present subjunctive sumus estis sunt • Imperfect Indicative – Eram – Eras – Erat eramus eratis erant • Future indicative – Ero – Eris – Erit erimus eritis erunt sim sis sit simus sitis sint Irregular Verbs: Possum, posse, potui • Definition: Be able, can – Always used with a complementary infinitive • Irregular in the present indicative and subjunctive, imperfect indicative, and future indicative; usually like sum just with pot in front • Regular in all other tenses Irregular Verbs : possum • Present Indicative – Possum – Potes – Potest Present Subjunctive possumus potestis possunt • Imperfect Indicative – Poteram poteramus – Poteras poteratis – Poterat poterant • Future Indicative – Potero – Poteris – Poterit poterimus poteritis poterunt possim possis possit possimus possitis possint Irregular verbs: volo, nolo, malo • • • • • • • Present tense indicative active Volo nolo malo Vis non vis mavis Vult non vult mavult Volumus nolumus malumus Vultis non vultis mavultis Volunt nolunt malunt Volo, nolo, malo • Imperfect bases: – Vole – Nole – male • Future Tense bases: treat like 3rd conjugation(ere) – Vol – Nol – Mal Volo, nolo, malo • • • • • • • Present active subjunctive Velim nolim Velis nolis Velit nolit Velimus nolimus Velitis nolitis Velint nolint malim malis malit malimus malitis malint Irregular Verbs: Fero, ferre, tuli, latum • Present Active Indicative – Fero – Fers – Fert ferimus fertis ferunt • Imperfect base: fere • Future base: fer – Use 3rd conjugation • Present subjunctive: treat like 3rd conjugation Irregular verbs: eo, ire, ivi, itus • Present Indicative Active – Eo – Is – It imus it is eunt – Imperfect base: i – Future base: i • Use bo, bis, bit, bimus, bitis, bunt Imperatives • States a command – Can be negative or positive – Always treated like a second person verb • Can be singular or plural – Frequently used with vocative nouns • Formation – Singular: Remove “re” from infinitive • Exceptions – – – – Dicere = dic Ducere = duc Facere = fac Ferre = fer Imperative • Examples – Vocare = Voca! – Sedere* = Sede! – Recumbere = recumbe! – Venire = veni! – Stare = sta! Imperative Plurals • Remove “re” from the infinitive and add “te” – Exception • 3rd conjugation (ere) • Remove “ere” add “ite” – Examples • • • • • Dare = date! Sedere* = sedete! Ducere = ducite Facere = facite Audire = audite Negative imperatives • Singular – Noli with the infinitive • Noli dicere! Don’t talk! • Plural – Nolite with the infinitive • Nolite dicere! Don’t talk! Deponent Verbs • Deponent verbs are special verbs that have only passive forms but active translations. – Example locutus sum I was talking • They only have three principal parts and follow the –r, i, - us/um sum pattern. – Example loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak • Follow the same rules for bases and endings as for normal verbs, just don’t ever make an active form. – For 3rd conjugation you have to remake the present active infinitive. Take the “i” off the 2nd pp. and add “ere”; then just follow the normal rules. Deponent verbs What are they? How do they function? What do you need to know about them? What is a Deponent Verb? • Special verbs with passive forms but active meanings Secutus est He followed. Recognize by having only three forms in the vocabulary listing ----r, ---i,----us sum conor, conari, conatus sum try deponent tempto, temptare, temptavi, temptatus try not deponent Deponent Imperatives • For most deponent verbs, take the second principal part: – Remove the “I” – Add “e” – Will look like an infinitive but translate like a command • Conor, conari, conatus sum Conare! Try! Deponent imperatives for 3rd conjugation • For third conjugation deponents: – Recognize by not having “r” before the “i” on the second principal part – Remove the “I” – Add “ere” – Example • Sequor, sequi,secutus sum = sequere Follow! Active forms for deponents • Future infinitive – Secuturum esse to be about to follow • Present participle – Sequens, sequentis following • Future Participle – Secuturus, -a, -um about to follow • Gerund – Sequendum following • Perfect Participle – Secutus, -a, -um having followed First Conjugation Vocabulary list for deponents Hortor, hortari, hortatus sum urge, encourage • Arbitror, -ari, -atus sum think • Conor, -ari, -atus sum try • Miror, -ari, -atus sum wonder • Moror, -ari, -atus sum delay • Recordor, -ari, -atus sum recall • Vagor,-ari, -atus sum wander • Osculor, -ari, -atus sum kiss Second conjugation • • • • Fateor, fateri, fassus sum confess Confiteor, confiteri, confessus sum confess Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus sum promise Vereor, vereri, veritus sum fear Third conjugation • • • • • • Loquor, loqui, locutus sum speak Nanciscor, nancisci, nactus sum find, obtain Nascor, nasci, natus sum be born Proficiscor, profisci, profectus sum set out Sequor, sequi, secutus sum follow Utor, uti, usus sum use Third conjugation • Collabor, collabi, collapsus sum collapse • Consequor, consequi, consecutus sum catch up to, overtake 3rd io conjugation • • • • • • Gradior, gradi, gressus sum walk Egredior, egredi, egressus sum go out, leave Morior, mori, mortuus sum die Patior, pati, passus sum endure, suffer Ingredior, ingredi, ingressus sum go in, enter Regredior, regredi, regressus sum go back, return Fourth conjugation • Experior, experiri, expertus sum test, try • Orior, oriri, ortus sum rise • Potior, potiri, potitus sum get possession of Deponent verbs • You will usually translate it correctly because it won’t make sense otherwise. • Will not be used with ablative of personal agent (a,ab plus ablative) – Ingredior villam a via. I am entering the house from the street. • I am being entered the house by the street. makes no sense. Semi-Deponent Verbs A small group of verbs which are deponent only the the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses Three principal parts -o, -e, -us sum Most commonly used semi-deponents are audeo, audere*, ausus sum dare gaudeo, gaudere*, gavisus sum rejoice soleo, solere*, solitus sum be accustomed Deponents 2 • They have a perfect active participle which is really useful. Normal verbs don’t have this. – i.e. Caesar, ausus negare senatum, fiat dictator • Caesar, having dared to deny the senate, became dictator. • Ausus because it is semi-deponent is translated actively (having dared) when a regular verb would only have a perfect passive participle (having been dared) which completely changes your sentence Subjunctives Special verbs in special clauses Present Active Subjunctive Endings • • • • Singular M = I S = you T = he, she, it • • • • Plural MUS = we Tis = you pl Nt = they Present Passive Subjunctives • • • • Singular R = I Ris = you Tur = he,she, it • • • • Plural Mur = we Mini = you pl. Ntur = they Bases for present subjunctives • 1st conjugation (are) – Remove ARE and add E • Amare = amem • 2nd conjugation (ēre) – Remove RE add A • Debēre = debeam • 3rd conjugation (ere) – Remover ERE add A • Ducere – ducam • . • 3rd io (io, -ere) • Remove ERE, add IA • Capio, capere = capiam • 4th conjugation (ire) – Remove “RE” add “A” • Audire = audiam She wears a diamond tiara The Irregular Present Subjunctive for sum and possum sum • Sim • Sis • Sit • Simus • Sitis you pl • Sint I you he, she, it we they possum • possim • possis • possit it • possimus • possitis • possint I you he, she, we you pl they IMPERFECT ACTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE • Endings – M = I was…ing, …..ed – S= you were …ing, ….ed – T = he, she it was …ing, …ed – MUS = we were …ing, …ed – TIS = you plural were …ing, …ed – NT = they were ….ing, …ed • Translate to show that the action happened at the same time or after the main verb Imperfect active subjunctive • BASE – Use the whole infinitive; don’t add or subtract any letters • Just connect the subjunctive ending – – – – – – Amarem Amares Amaret Amaremus Amaretis Amarent Imperfect active subjunctive • Recognition – Most imperfect subjunctives will have RE before the personal ending because most infinitives end with RE – Some very common verbs have irregular infinitives. Memorize these so that you can recognize their imperfect subjunctive • • • • • Sum, esse, fui Possum, posse, potui Volo, velle, volui Nolo, nolle, nolui Malo, malle, malui IMPERFECT PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE • ENDINGS –r – ris – tur – mur – mini – ntur I You He, she, it We You pl They imperfect passive subjunctive • Base = whole infinitive • Translation should show the action occurs at the same time or after the verb and is not performed by the subject. • Example – – – – – – amarer I was loved amarerisyou were loved amaretur he, she, it was loved amaremur we were loved amaremini you pl were loved amarentur they were loved Perfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs • • • • • • • • • • Base = 3rd principal part minus “I” Endings singular Erim I Eris you Erit he, she, it Plural Erimus we Eritis you pl Erint they Perfect Passive Subjunctive:Uses the two part verb system – first part is the 4th principal part functioning as an adjective and agreeing in gender, number, and case with the subject • us,-a, -um singular • i, -ae,- a plural – second part is the present subjunctive of sum • • • • • • Sim Sis Sit Simus Sitis sint • Example • Amatus sis – You ( male) were loved • amatus, -a, - um sim I was loved • amatus, -a, -um sis you were loved • amatus, -a, -um sit he, she, it was loved • amati, -ae, -a simuswe were loved • amati, -ae, -a sitis you pl were loved • amati, -ae, -a sint they were loved PLUPERFECT ACTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE • ENDINGS – ISSEM I HAD – ISSES YOU HAD – ISSET HE, SHE, IT HAD – ISSEMUS WE HAD – ISSETIS YOU PLURAL HAD – ISSENT THEY HAD PLUPERFECT ACTIVE SUBUNCTIVE • BASE – 3rd principal part minus I • There are no irregulars • Example amo, amare, amavi, amatus – – – – – – Amavissem Amavisses Amavisset Amavissemus Amavissetis Amavissent • Translate to show the action took place before the main verb; HAD is usually safe but there are other options. PLUPERFECT PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE:uses the two part verb system – first part is the 4th principal part functioning as an adjective and agreeing in gender, number, and case with the subject • us,-a, -um singular • i, -ae,- a plural – second part is the imperfect subjunctive of sum • • • • • • essem esses esset essemus essetis essent sample pluperfect passive • amatus, -a, - um essem I had been loved • amatus, -a, -um esses you had been loved • amatus, -a, -um esset he, she, it had been loved • amati, -ae, -a essemus we had been loved • amati, -ae, -a essetis you pl had been loved • amat-, -ae, -a essent they had been loved PURPOSE CLAUSES • POSITIVE PURPOSE ( POSITIVE MEANS IT HAPPENS) – INTRODUCED BY UT – SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF AN ACTION • EXAMPLE –Plinius scripsit ut laudaret suam uxorem. –Pliny wrote so that he might praise his wife. PURPOSE CLAUSES • NEGATIVE PURPOSE ( WON’T HAPPEN) – INTRODUCED BY NE – SHOWS THE PURPOSE OF NOT DOING AN ACTION – EXAMPLE • Cicero comprehendit Catilinae manum ne patriam vastarent. • Cicero arrested Catilina’s band of men so that they would not destroy the country. ADVERBIAL PURPOSE • INTRODUCED BY UBI • SHOWS WHY THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE AS DONE SOMETHING • EXAMPLE • Cicero tempus exspectabat ubi Catilinam verbis oppugnaret. • Cicero was awaiting a time when he might attack Catilina with words. Relative clause of purpose • Introduced by a form of qui, quae, quod • Gives the purpose more closely connected with a noun or pronoun than a verb • Example – Cicero accepit epistulam quae explicaret Catilinae coniurationem. – Cicero received a letter to explain Catilina’s conspiracy – Cicero received a letter which explained Catilina’s conspiracy. Sequence of tenses Primary tenses (present, future, future perfect) Secondary Tenses (imperfect, perfect, pluperfect) If the main verb is a primary tense, use the following subjunctives to show proper relationship to the main verb: same time/after: present subjunctive before: perfect subjunctive • If the main verb is a secondary tense, use the following subjunctives to show proper relationship to the main verb: – same time/after: imperfect subjunctive – Before: pluperfect Sequence of tenses • Caesar wrote the Gallic Commentaries so that people would not forget him. • Sallust wrote so that he might explain the Catiline conspiracy. • Brutus was awaiting a time when he might betray Caesar with a knife Result Clauses • Shows the result of the main verb – Madge was so angry that she threw a platter at Herb. • Introduced by ut for something that did, will, or could happen • Introduced by ut plus a negative (ne, non, nullus, et al.) for something that did not, will not, could not happen • The main clause will usually contain a word that means “so” such as tam, sic, talis, tantus, tot, adeo; • These words should act as signals that a result clause is coming. – Pompeuis Iuliam tam amavit ut civitatem neglegaret. Cum Clauses • Temporal: establishes the time when something occurs – Verb will be indicative – Cum translated as when • Circumstantial: explain the circumstances under which something occurs – Verb will be subjunctive – Cum translated as since or when Cum Clauses continued • Causal: explains the reason something happens • Verb will be subjunctive • cum will translate as since or because • Concessive: explains something that may have blocked or hindered the main verb – Verb will be subjunctive – Cum will translate as although Subjunctives in Indirect Speech • Indirect questions – Whenever a question is reported in a statement, this is an indirect statement. • I know what you are planning. Scio quid facias. – The main verb wil be a verb or asking or telling such as rogo, peto, quaero – The verb of the question portion will be subjunctive. – The question portion will be introduced by an interrogative word such as ubi, cur, quare, quo. Quis, quid, quo modo, quantus, qualis et al. Subjunctives in Indirect speech • Indirect command: reports a direct command – Command portion will be subjunctive – Main verb will be a verb of commanding or persuading such as mando, impero, persuadeo, suadeo, moneo, oro, et al – The command portion will be introduced by ut for positive, ne for negative • Caesar imperavit milites ut hostem oppugnaret. Subjunctives in Indirect Speech • Clauses of fearing: with verbs or expressions of fear, what is feared will use the subjunctive – Use ne if you fear something will happen • Calupurnia timet ne Caesar interfectus esset a Bruto. Use ut if you fear something will not happen. Brutus timet ut civitas supersit. Expression of Fear Words of fear timeo, timere, timui vereor, vereri, veritus sum metus, metus pavor, pavoris terror, terroris extimesco, extimescere, extimui pertimesco, pertimescere, pertimui formido, formidinis formido, formidare timor, timoris Subordinate clauses in indirect discourse • If you have a subordinate clause such as a relative clause inside an indirect statement, indirect question, or indirect command, put the verb of the indirect statement in the subjunctive • These sentences usually have three verbs. – Turducken sentences • Caesar ordered the soliders to attack the enemy who was hiding in the ditch. – Ordered main clause – Attack indirect command – Hiding discourse Relative Clause of Characteristic • Characterizes or describes a general or indefinite antecedent • Common after phrases such as est qui, sunt qui, nemo est qui, quis est qui • Use a subjunctive verb for the relative clause part • Usually translate as – Of that sort, the kind that ….. – Quis est cliens quo interficiat suum patronum? Anticipation • When an action is anticipated, when dum means until, and antequam or priusquam means before, use the subjuntive. • If these words introduce an actual fact, use the indicative. Conditionals • Introduced by mostly by si, nisi, an • Simple Conditions will probably happen and use indicative verbs regardless of the tense. • If Caesar conquers Gaul, he will be powerful • Si Caesar vincit Galliam, erit potens. • Future Conditionals can be one of two types: more vivid which will probably happen and uses future perfect and future indicative verbs and less vivid which is not likely to happen and uses the present subjunctive. Conditionals Continued • More Vivid – If she sees him, she will run. • Si viderit eum, curret. • Less Vivid – If she should see him, she would run. • Si videat eum, currat. • The writer uses the grammar to inform the reader of the likelihood of the conditional occurring. Conditionals continued • Contrary to Fact – Cannot happen or will not happen – Use imperfect subjuncive if English present – Use pluperfect subjunctive for past – If I were you, I would not do that. • Si essem te, ego non facerem id. – If I had known the facts, I would have acted more quickly. • Si cognovissem facta, egissem celerius. Main Verb Subjunctive: Hortatory • Expresses a mild command or exhortation • Uses only the present subjuncitves • No introductory word for positive; use ne for negative • Translate with let or may – Ludi incipiant. Let the games begin. • Frequently used for blessing and curses Main Verb Subjunctive: Deliberative Questions • Rhetorical questions implying doubt, indignation, surprise or impossibility • Usually introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adverb, or adjective • The writer is not expecting an answer. • Example – Why would anyone trust Brutus now? – Cur aliquis credat Bruto nunc? Main verb Subjunctive: Optative • Expresses a wish • If the wish can come true, use the present subjunctive. • If the wish cannot come true, use imperfect subjunctive for present, pluperfect for past • Frequently introduced by utinam • Utinam Caesar non credidisset Bruto • If only Caesar had not trusted Brutus