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The Middle East Empires
MES 20
Reflections on the Middle East
History and Conflicts
Prof. Hesham Issa Mohammed Abdelaal
Ethnical Classification
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This Lecture will use Ethnical Classification to Explain
the great empires of the middle east from the seven
century to the Eighteen century.
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Related current events:
September 10th, 2014: Obama authorize the Air
attack on ISIS
September 16t, 2014 Dempsey Testify to senate
on ISIS: There will be ground forces as advisors.
Who is ISIS? How the historical analysis of this
lecture contribute to the current conflict?
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In this lecture
The Middle East empires
1.Arabs: The Rise of Islamic Civilization
·•The Islam Expansion During Muhammed and the four Caliphs
·•The Umayyad Empire
·•The Abbasid Empire
2.Turkic: Ottoman Empire
3.Persian: Safavid Empire
• Lecture and Reading Intent outcomes:
• Knowledge
• List the name of Empires in the Middle East from
632-1700
• Summarize the Development of the Islamic
civilisation.
• Comprehension
• Explain the raise and fall of many Middle East
empires.
• Identify the origin of ethnic groups of the later
modern Middle East
• Synthesis
• Relate many contemporary Middle east issues to
many historical facts and incidents.
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Arabs: The Islamic Empire
The spread of Islam
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• After the first four Rashidun (People of
Wisdom) caliphs, the Umayyad Caliphate
became the dominant force in Islam
• The Umayyad's moved the capital to
Damascus (modern Syria) and began to act
more like European (Byzantine) rulers
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Early Islamic Expansion:
• Muhammad had not appointed a successor before he died in 632
• He had not even established a procedure by which to appoint/elect/
pass leadership.
• Opinion in Muslim community is deeply divided as to who shall lead
next
• The leader who would succeed him would be known as the Rashidun
caliphs, the political and religious successor to Muhammad.
- First Rashidun Caliph 632–634
Abu Bakr Alsadeeq
- Second Rashidun Caliph 634–644 Umar Ibn Alkhatab
- Third Rashidun Caliph 644–656
Uthman Ibn Affan
- Fourth Rashidun Caliph 656–661 Ali Ibn Abi Talib
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Arabs: The Islamic Empire
The spread of Islam
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Jerusalem and Islam
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Reasons of islam Expansion success to the end of the
Fourth caliphs
• The unify under the religion of faith.
• Exhaustion of Rome and Persia
• End of a 400 year war
• Nationalist sentiments in the Egyptian and
Assrayan kingdoms.
• Arguments among Christian factions.
• Speed and size of Muslim armies.
• Simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam.
• Acceptance of the Old and New Testament of
People of the Book.
After the Fourth caliphs
• After Ali the fourth caliphs and the last of
Rashidun, the Umayyad Caliphate became the
Why Jerusalem is Important to Muslims:
The Siege of Jerusalem was part of a military
conflict which took place in the year 637
between the Byzantine Empire and the Rashidun
Caliphate.
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Jerusalem and Islam
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For Muslims
Al-Aqsa Mosque
• A small prayer house built by the Rashidun
caliph Umar, where it is believe that the
prophet Mohamed night Transported from
the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa
during the Night Journey.
• It was the 1st led prayers towards this site
until the seventeenth month after the
emigration, when God directed him to turn
towards the Kaaba
• It Becomes the First Islamic empire capital
after Mecca-and - Madinah under Maawiya
Ibn Sofian the Umayyad caliph
Jerusalem and Islam
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For Jewish
• Solomon's Temple, also known as the First
Temple, was the Holy Temple (Hebrew: n
ancient Jerusalem, on the Temple Mount in
the same site of Al-aqsa Mosque before its
destruction by Nebuchadnezzar II after the
Siege of Jerusalem of 587 BCE.
• There is no direct archaeological evidence for
the existence of Solomon's Temple
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The Sunnah and Shia
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Sunni
• Those who remained loyal to the Umayyad are
called Sunni (means Majority)
• Sunni make up over 85% of Muslims today
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How the division of Sunnah and Shia created:
• Spark of violence: Murder of the 3rd caliph, Uthman Who
was a decent of Bnu Umayyad tribe , by warriors returning
from Egypt
• His death was the signal for the supporters of Ali the
decent of Bnu Hashim tribe, Muhammad tribe, to
proclaim him as caliph
• Uthman had not been popular among many tribes,
especially the early followers, because he was the first
caliph chosen from the Umayyad clan.
• Umayyad tribe reject Ali’s claims
• Mawayah Ibn Sofian in 660- proclaimed leader (caliph) in
Jerusalem
• Directly challenges Ali’s position
• In 661- Ali assassinated
• From this point on Sunnis- back the Umayyad and Shi’asupporters of Ali/anti-Umayyad
The Development of the Islamic Civilization
The Sunnah and Shia
The Development of the Islamic Civilization
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The Umayyads ruled 661- 750 CE
The Sunnah and Shia
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Umayyad Caliphate
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Shia Believes,
• Ali, was Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law and he should be
the successor and the first caliph after Muhammed Death. He
became the fourth Rashidun caliph, but was assassinated by
Umayyad.
• There were some Muslims who believed the Umayyad’s were
corrupting Islam
• One of those was Ali’s son (Muhammad’s grandson), Hussein
who refused to pay allegiance to the Umayyad.
• At the Battle of Karbala, Hussein was beheaded
• The people who were loyal to Hussein believed that the caliph
should be a descendent of Muhammad
• They are called Shi’a (Shiite) – means “Party of Ali”
• Almost all of them live in South-east Iraq and Iran
• Karbala is a holy site to which they pilgrimage today
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Umayyad conquests reached:
• Middle East
• Persia
• North Africa
• Spain and Portugal
• Afghanistan and Pakistan
• Stopped by the Franks in 732 or they
would have taken Europe.
• Damascus was the Capital
• Only Muslim Arabs were first class citizens
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The Abbasid Caliphate
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The Abbasid Caliphate
• The golden Age of Islam, Abbasid Caliphate
• Seed Of Rebellions against Umayyad led by Abu al`Abbās `Abdu'llāh ibn Muhammad as-Saffāḥ,
• During the reign of late Umayyad Caliph Hisham ibn
Abd al-Malik this unrest led to revolt in Kufa
• In 750’s 50,000 Muslim warriors had settled in Iran
and intermarried with the local people.
• Damascus seemed very distant to them.
• They considered the Umayyan elite corrupt and
decadent.
• They called themselves the Abbasid after
Muhammad’s uncle al-Abbas – they picked up the
support of Ali’s supporters and the Mawali
The Abbasid Caliphate
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The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy:
• Abou Alabas Alsafah developed the Kufi with Diacritic dots
and accent
• The New Abbasid Style (NS) began at the end of the 9th
century and was used for copying the Qur'an until the 12th
centuries, and maybe even as late as the 13th century. Unlike
manuscripts copied in Early Abbasid scripts, NS manuscripts
had vertical formats.
• During this time, Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (died 786)
devised a tashkil system to replace that of Abu al-Aswad. His
system has been universally used since the early 11th
century, and includes six diacritical marks: fatha (a), damma
(u), kasra (i), sukun (vowel-less), shadda (double consonant),
madda (vowel prolongation; applied to the alif)
• Another central figure during this time was Abū Bakr b.
Mud̲ jā̲ hid (died 324/936). His goal was to restrict the
number of reliable readings and accept only those based on
a fairly uniform consonantal text.
The Islamic Empire Golden Age
Kufi Manuscripts from 2nd century H
Ma‘ili manuscript from 1st century H
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The Abbasid Caliphate
7th century The Arabic Kufi
consisted of about 17 letters
without diacritic dots or accents
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The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy:
• He chose seven well-known Qur'an teachers of the
2nd/8th century and declared that their readings all
had divine authority, which the others lacked. He
̲ ̲ in which
based this on the popular ḥadī th
Muhammad says the Qur'an was revealed to him in
“seven aḥruf”. During this time there was strong
Qur'anic traditions in Kūfa, Baṣra, Medina, Damascus,
and Mecca.
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The abbasid Development of Arabic text and calligraphy:
• Perhaps the most predominant style of Arabic
calligraphy, the Thuluth Style was created in the
Abbasid period. This style was used particularly when
writing official documents of the king or Sultan.
• The style may have gotten it’s name “thuluth” (“a
third”) because the thuluth writing was about one
third of the size of the other well known
contemporary writing style. As depicted in the picture
to the right, the script is a combination of lines &
curves, a cursive flow, and intricate proportions. Some
still consider it the most vital of all the ornamental
scripts today.
9th century Qur'an, an early
kufic example from the
Abbasid period.
The Abbasid Caliphate
The New Abbasid Style Naskh and Thulth
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The Islamic Civilization
Ottomans
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The raise of the Ottoman Empire 1299 (AC)
• The Osman Turks started on the Anatolian Peninsula in Turkey.
• They started on land granted them by the Seljuk Turks.
• They were a pastoral and peaceful people at the start.
• As the Seljuk Turks began to decline, the Osman began to
expand, and the Ottoman dynasty began.
• In the 14th century, the Ottomans moved into the Balkans.
• They took the title of sultan and began to build a strong military
by developing the “janissaries.”
• Janissary were an elite military guard recruited from Christians,
converted to Islam, and trained as foot soldiers or
administrators to the sultan.
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Ottoman
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Ottoman
Siege to the city of Constantinople.
• April 6, 1453, the Ottoman Turks laid siege to the city of
Constantinople.
• May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks
and Mehmet II.
• The Turks spent 3 days sacking the city. Many people lost
their lives inside the city.
• The city was later renamed Istanbul.
The Expansion of Ottoman Empire
• Selim I took control of Mesopotamia (Iraq), Egypt, and
Arabia – included Jerusalem, Mecca, and Madinah.
• He took the title of caliph, defender of the faith.
• The Ottoman Empire went from the Black Sea to the Red
Sea to the Strait of Gibraltar.
• There was little impact on North Africa.
Political structure
• Pashas, appointed government officials, collected taxes
and maintained law and order reported to the sultan in
Constantinople.
The Expansion of Ottoman Empire
• Suleiman I, or Suleiman the Magnificent, came to rule in
1520. He expanded Ottoman rule into Europe and the
western Med. Sea.
• He ruled for 46 years. He was a great military commander,
but he known for his legislation as well.
Political Structure
• He codified Ottoman law keeping Islamic faith, took into
account Christian inhabitants of the Empire, addressed
taxes, and built more schools.
• Suleiman I may have been able to run an empire, but his
personal life was different.
• He married a harem girl from Poland named Roxelana and
had 5 children with her.
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Ottoman Ruling Class
• The Ottoman Empire was like most Muslim empires of the time; it
was a" Theocratic and Military government ”
• Sultans were the head of the empire. Sultans were the supreme
authorities in both political and military senses.
• The position of sultan was hereditary – a son always succeeded
the father.
• Many deaths among family members took place because of this.
• Since the times of Mehmet II, Ottoman sultans ruled from the
Topkaki Palace in Istanbul., It served as an administrative
headquarters and chief residence of the sultan.
• The private domain of the sultan was called a “harem,” or “sacred
place.” Here the sultan and his wives lived. Sultans often chose 4
wives as his favorites.
• When a son became sultan, his mother became queen mother and
acted as a major adviser to the throne.
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The creation of the Viziers position:
• The chief advisor to the sultan was the “grand vizier.”
• He led meetings of the imperial council that met 4 days a week.
• The sultan sat behind a screen and made his wishes known to the
grand vizier.
• The empire was divided into districts and ruled by officials who
were helped by bureaucrats trained at palace schools.
• Senior officials were given land but the sultan and were
responsible for collecting taxes and supplying armies for the
empire
Religion of the Ottoman Empire
• The Ottomans were Sunni Muslims. Sultans had claimed the title
of caliph since the 16th century. They were responsible for guiding
the flock and keeping Islamic law.
• In practice, they gave their religious duties to the “ulema”- a
group of religious advisors.
• The ulema were responsible for the legal system and schools for
educating Muslims.
Ottoman
Ottoman
Grand vizier the Sultan advisor
Ulema or the Islamic Scholars
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The decline of Ottoman Empire Around 1699, the problems became more visible.
• The training of officials declined, and senior
positions were given to the sons and daughters
of the elite. Members of the elite were busy
trying to amass their own fortunes, so local
government grew more corrupt and taxes rose.
Wars depleted the imperial treasury.
• Other problems arose.
• The biggest problem was the influence of
Western Europe.
• Western clothes, Western furniture,
tobacco and coffee were introduced to
the Ottomans.
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(b) is the correct answer, They allowed a degree
Ottoman
How is the religious policy o the Ottoman sultans best described?
of toleration but taxed religious minorities.
A.They expelled Catholics and Protestants, but not Orthodox
Christians.
B.They allowed a degree o toleration but taxed religious
minorities.
C.They gave ull equality to all worshippers, regardless o aith.
D.They ruthlessly suppressed Jews and Christians.
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Safavid
Shah Abbas I the Great (r. 1587-1629)
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Safavid
This work is rightly regarded as the
artist's best work, distinguished by
its exquisite drawing, superb
depiction of details and remarkable
coloring. The artist uses a typical
16th-century device: the
representation runs over the border
and into the margins.
Riza-i-Abbasi
• Shah Abbas, who ruled from 1588 to 1629,
brought the Safavids to their highest point of
glory.
• He attacked the Ottoman Turks, with European
help – they saw the Safavids as allies – to
regain lost lands from the Ottomans.
• The Safavids could not keep territorial gains,
but a treaty was signed in 1612 returning
Azerbaijan to the Safavids.
• The Safavid Empire went from Azerbaijan on
the Caspian Sea east to India; along the
Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea north to the
southern border of Russia.
Political Structure
• Isfahan was the Safavid capital, While under Shah Hussein, it
was taken by Afghan peoples. Isfahan was the jewel of the
Safavid Empire, and it is still that for modern-day Iran.
• Persia sank into a period of anarchy – lawlessness and disorder.
• The role of the shah was that of a king.
• The social structure was Shah, bureaucracy and landed classes,
then the common people.
• The official religion was Shia Islam because the Shiites
supported the shahs at first.
• Silk weaving flourished, but carpet weaving flourished more –
Persian rugs are still prized today.
• Riza-i-Abbasi is the most famous artist of this time. He made
beautiful works about simple subjects such as oxen plowing,
hunters, and lovers. They used soft colors and flowing
movement in painting.
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The class which initially dominated the Ottoman and Safavid in
the
social hierarchy was
A. descendants of slaves (Mameluks).
B. a military aristocracy.
C. the clergy.
D. the merchant class.
E. largely composed of intellectuals and scholars.
Ottoman and Safavid Empires Similarities towards the western
culture :
• The Ottoman empire gained through their trade with minority
groups, such as Christians and Jews, which had connections
with overseas traders that the Safavid empire lacked
• The Safavid empire cooperated with the Portuguese which
helped with the lack of overseas connections, but their
economy remained more constricted, less market oriented, and
more tech backward than the ottomans.
• Women in both societies were disadvantaged and subordinated
to their brothers/husbands in the home, however they
struggled with these restrictions
• Women in both societies were active in trade and court records
suggest women often could invoke provisions in Islamic Law.
• The exchange of culture and impact of religion toleration in
both empires, loosen the restriction on Women life and duties
through out the modern Middle East era.
(B) is correct. In keeping with their
origins as warring steppe nomads,
and in reward for their role in gaining
all three empires, the military leaders
of each
formed a new military aristocracy.
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(A) is correct. Support for Shi’ism is what
separated the Safavids from neighboring groups,
The Safavids arose to power in Persia primarily due to
A. their support for the Shi’ite cause.
and was a unifying force.
B. an alliance with Portuguese merchants and soldiers.
C. their conversion from Islam to Christianity.
D. a monopoly on military technologies and guns.
E. their control of trade along the silk road.
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All of these developments weakened the rule of the Ottoman
government EXCEPT:
(A) powerful factions within the Janissaries and court
bureaucrats.
(B) harem politics by rival wives and their sons, who were
potential heirs.
(E) is correct. All contributed to division
within the state, but the viziers were not
in themselves a threat.
(C) the hedonistic lifestyles of many sultans.
(D) corruption and graft.
(E) the development of the office of vizier.
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During the four empires (Umayyad, Abbasid, Ottoman, Safavid)
the Caliph in each empire invoked a divine status.
A.True
B.False
On August 22nd Shia gunmen shot 68 Sunnis dead in a
mosque in Diyala province. Human Rights Watch, a New Yorkbased lobby, has accused government-backed Shia militias of
kidnapping and killing scores of Sunni civilians this year:
(Economist article War against Jihadists, Sept. 6, 2014). 48
The correct answer is (B) False Islamic principals
was the used to rule. One side based on authority
handed down from the Prophet, on succession, and
on heading the community as Imam. The other side
on basis of a mass of traditions which were
additional and external to the Koran, additional to
what Mohammed had revealed, additional to the
word of (God) as revealed by Mohammed.
(e) is the Correct answer
What historical events can help in explaining the origin of this
conflict?
A. Muhammad’s death and succession question.
B. Muawiya claim to caliphate. C. Ottoman and Safavid wars in Iraq. D. A & B only. E. All above.
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