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Research
Skills
Vocabulary
Writing
Process
Journal
and Creative
Writing
Language Arts
Critical
Analysis
Grammar
Reading
Comprehension
Speaking
and
Listening
Style and
Usage Guide
National PASS Center
2012
National PASS Center
Geneseo Migrant Center
3 Mt. Morris – Leicester Road
Leicester, NY 14481
(800) 245-5681
(585) 658-7969 (fax)
www.migrant.net/pass
Curriculum Writers:
Jane Hogan, Elizabeth Madlener, Shirley McNally, Dorothy Topping
Editors:
Mary Fink, Sally Fox, Courtney Hopf
Desk Top Publishing:
Kim Mease
Graphics and Formatting:
Eva McKendry
Readability Scores:
Flesh-Kincaid Grade Level
Flesh Reading Ease
6.6
66.3
Developed by the National PASS Center under the leadership of the National
PASS Coordinating Committee with funding from state and local migrant
education programs.
Research
Skills
Vocabulary
Writing
Process
Journal
and Creative
Writing
Language Arts
Critical
Analysis
Grammar
Reading
Comprehension
Speaking
and
Listening
Style and
Usage Guide
National PASS Center
2012
Genesee Valley Educational Partnership
Geneseo Migrant Center
3 Mt. Morris – Leicester Road
Leicester, NY 14481
Acknowledgements
The National PASS Center was initiated in 1997 as a result of the efforts of many individuals
interested in the continuation of PASS (Portable Assisted Study Sequence) as a viable credit
accrual option to assist migrant youth to successfully complete secondary education. These
committed and dedicated advocates on behalf of migrant youth are to be commended for their
vision and persistence. Special thanks are in order to the members of the National PASS
Coordinating Committee (NPCC) who have provided the direction for the initiatives of the
National PASS Center.
The courses developed by the National PASS Center build upon a long history of course
development and revision initiated throughout the country by the State Migrant Education
PASS Programs. The State of California has been the leader in this effort since the initiation of
PASS in 1978. The many past curriculum writers deserve much credit for their work which has
assisted thousands of young people obtain a high school diploma.
The development of these courses has been a labor of love for the curriculum development
team. Each member contributed significantly. In addition, many others have been involved in
the editing, layout and review of the materials. The reviewers, both professionals in the content
area and students, have provided valuable input.
Copyrights
The National PASS Center gratefully acknowledges permission granted by authors, publishers
and agents to reprint copyrighted material. Every effort has been made to determine copyright
ownership. If omissions have been made, suitable acknowledgements will be made in future
printings.
Robert Lynch, Director
National PASS Center
Style and Usage Guide
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
Effective Writing Guidelines .................................................................................... 2
Grammar and Usage
Section A: Parts of Speech – Nouns ................................................................... 3
Usage – Plurals ................................................................................. 4
Section B: Parts of Speech – Pronouns ................................................................ 5
Section C: Antecedents ........................................................................................ 6
Commonly Confused Pronouns ......................................................... 7
Section D: Parts of Speech – Verbs ..................................................................... 8
Section E: Parts of Speech – Verbs (continued) ..................................................10
Section F: Commonly Confused Verbs ...............................................................11
Commonly Confused Past Tenses .....................................................12
Section G: Parts of Speech – Adjectives..............................................................13
Section H: Commonly Confused Adjectives .......................................................14
Section I: Parts of Speech – Adverbs..................................................................16
Section J: Commonly Confused Adjectives and Adverbs ..................................17
Section K: Parts of Speech – Prepositions ...........................................................18
Section L: Parts of Speech – Conjunctions ..........................................................20
Section M: Usage – Conjunctions versus Prepositions........................................22
Section N: Parts of Speech – Interjections...........................................................22
Section O: Parts of a Sentence – Phrases and Clauses.........................................23
Section P: Complete Sentences............................................................................25
Section Q: Complete Sentence Exercises (continued) .........................................27
Section R: Subject and Predicate Exercises .........................................................28
Section S: Parts of a Sentence – Direct Objects ..................................................29
Section T: Subject and Predicate Exercises (continued)......................................31
Section U: Parts of a Sentence – Objective and Subjective Complements..........31
Page
Section V: Usage – Completing the Verb To Be ............................................... 33
Section W: Types of Sentences ........................................................................... 34
Section X: Sentence Fragments .......................................................................... 35
Section Y: Sentence Structure............................................................................. 37
Section Z: Sentence Structure (continued).......................................................... 38
Section AA: Writing Complete Sentences .......................................................... 39
Section BB: Sentence Review............................................................................. 40
Section CC: Mechanics – Punctuation and Capitalization.................................. 41
Section DD: Punctuation within Sentences ........................................................ 44
Section EE: Special Marks of Punctuation ......................................................... 46
Section FF: Capitalization ................................................................................... 49
Documenting Sources ............................................................................................... 50
Works Cited Format .................................................................................................. 51
Internal Documentation............................................................................................. 55
Grammar and Usage Answer Key ............................................................................ 59
National PASS Center November 2012
Style and Usage Guide
Introduction
By following a style and usage guide you can learn to write clearly and responsibly. You
will be able to communicate with your reader and give credit to other writers who have
contributed to your work. There are several well-known manuals of style including those of the
Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Association (APA) and The
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Look for one or more of these style guides in your library.
Leaf through them to learn what sorts of information are available to you in a style guide. You
can also find style guide information on the Internet. Go to a search engine and type in a
request for information on “style guide.” Refer to a style guide when you need assistance with
correct writing style, usage and documentation for assignments.
This Style and Usage Guide” was originally developed as a supplement to English III and
is designed to build your skills in writing, grammar, punctuation, capitalization, usage and
documentation of sources. Refer to it whenever you need to check on standard mechanics and
usage, as well as when you are attempting to document sources properly. Also, you may want
refer you to the Style and Usage Guide for reading and exercises to check on or polish your
writing skills.
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National PASS Center November 2012
Effective Writing Guidelines
The goal in effective writing is to produce work that goes beyond merely being correct in
spelling, punctuation and grammar. To be effective, writing must make the reader want to
continue to the end of the piece. These guidelines may help you to achieve this in your writing.
1. Write the way you talk. Use a natural, conversational tone.
2. Brainstorm. Then use a graphic organizer or outline, write, revise and
rewrite.
3. Plan a beginning, middle and end.
4. Write about people, things & facts. Ideas need to be expressed using
concrete concepts, images or illustrations.
5. Put yourself in the reader’s place. What do you want to know? Are
thoughts expressed clearly enough to avoid misunderstandings?
6. Don’t be too brief.
7. Specify. Use illustrations, cases, examples.
8. Go from the rule to the exception, from the familiar to the new.
9. Rely on action verbs and descriptive nouns.
10. Use quotes from other people or materials and give them proper credit.
11. Omit unnecessary words.
12. Read aloud when proofreading your final draft.
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Grammar and Usage
Section A
Parts of Speech – Nouns
Definition
Clue
Uses
Noun: a word that names a
person, place or thing.
Examples: a man or
Franklin Roosevelt; a
country or Greece; the
tunnel or the Lincoln
Tunnel. Common nouns,
such as man are not
capitalized unless they begin
a sentence. Proper nouns,
such as Franklin Roosevelt,
are capitalized.
Put a, an, or the before the
word you think might be a
noun; if it makes sense, it is a
noun. Example: “A
beautiful, young lady had died
instantaneously. . . .” Is the
noun beautiful or young or
lady? The noun is lady
because a goes with lady, not
with beautiful or young.
Exception: With some
proper nouns, such as a
person’s name, the clue does
not work.
Nouns can be the subject,
direct object, object of a
preposition, or predicate
nominative of a sentence.
Examples: “In the deepening
twilight three figures were
walking across the lawn
towards the window; they all
carried guns under their
arms….”
Figures is the subject; twilight,
lawn, window and arms are
objects of prepositions. Guns
is a direct object.
Exercises
1.
Underline the nouns in the passage from “Dr. Heidegger’s Experiment.” (Remember to
test a word, put a, an, or the before it and see if it makes sense.
“If all stories were true, [the] study must have been a very curious place. It was a dim,
old-fashioned chamber, festooned with cobwebs, and besprinkled with antique dust.
Around the walls stood several oaken bookcases, the lower shelves of which were filled
with rows of gigantic folios . . . .”
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2.
Make a list of three common nouns, one to show a person, one to show a place, and one
to show a thing. Then make two of the common nouns into proper nouns.
Example: The father, a common noun, is made into a proper noun such as Mr. Brown.
Keep this list of five nouns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Usage
Plurals: A noun becomes a plural when it names more than one person, place, or thing.
Usually, a plural noun ends in s: boys, girls, homes, forests, dogs, treats, roses, etc.

A few nouns don’t change at all between singular and plural: fish, woods, deer

For most nouns that end in y, the y is changed to i and es is added: city becomes cities,
twenty becomes twenties; democracy becomes democracies

Hyphenated words usually show the plural in the first word: mother-in-law becomes
mothers-in-law

Some nouns change altogether for the plural: man becomes men; child becomes
children

Most words that end in s, sh, soft ch, x, or z become es in the plural: lens becomes
lenses, match becomes matches, dish becomes dishes
Learn these plurals by paying attention as you are reading or listening to others speak.
Alert: Plural nouns are not formed by adding an apostrophe and s (’s). When you see a
phrase such as the cow’s calf, think of cow’s as an adjective. It is a possessive noun. To
indicate the calves of many cows, say the cows’ calves.
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Section B
Parts of Speech – Pronouns
Definition
Clue
Uses
A pronoun is a noun
substitute.
Types of pronouns:
personal: (subjective
case) I, you, he, she, it, we,
they. (objective case) me,
you, him, her, it, us, them;
(possessive case) my or
mine, your or yours, his,
her or hers, its, our or ours,
their or theirs.
indefinite: all, any, both,
each, either, neither,
everybody, none, one,
several, some, someone,
somebody, few, many,
several, most, everyone.
relative: who, whom,
which, that, what.
interrogative: who,
whom, whose, which,
what.
reflexive: myself,
yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
demonstrative: this,
these, that, those.
Except for the possessive
pronouns, pronouns always
stand alone. When they come
before a noun, they are no
longer pronouns but are
called adjectives.
A pronoun can do anything
a noun can do.
personal pronouns refer to a
particular noun. Example:
My father got a new job. He
likes it very much.
indefinite pronouns make
vague references. Example:
All of you go home! All
could be boys, girls, both
boys and girls, or even
chickens.
relative pronouns show a
relationship with a noun; they
are always attached to a noun.
Gates is the man who
invented Windows.
interrogative pronouns ask
questions: Who got a new
job?
reflexive pronouns always
refer to a personal pronoun:
You can do that all by
yourself.
demonstrative pronouns are
pointing something out: That
is the very book!
Examples:
1. All of the men left early.
In this sentence, all is a
pronoun.
But
2. All people are mortal. In
this sentence, all is an
adjective modifying
people. (See adjectives.)
3. That coat is his. His is a
pronoun.
But
That is his coat. His is an
adjective.
Subjective case personal, relative, or interrogative pronouns, including who,
which, what, and that, can be subjects of clauses or phrases. Objective case
pronouns, including whom, which, what, that, can be the objects of verbs (direct
objects) or of prepositions. Possessive case pronouns, including whose, usually
show a connection with a noun or another pronoun, such as, Is this coat yours?
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Exercises
1. Using the sentences from “Dr. Heidegger’s Experiment” that you used previously in the
noun search in Section A, list the pronouns. Put PP beside each personal pronoun and
write the case (subjective, objective, possessive) of the personal pronouns.
Pronoun
PP?
Case
1.
2.
2. Replace each of the five nouns that you selected in Section A with a pronoun.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Section C
Antecedents
1.
When a personal pronoun is used it must refer to a noun, which is called the antecedent.
In clear writing, this antecedent is obvious.
Poor Writing
Clear Writing
Sue’s mother died when she was five.
When Sue was five, her mother died.
They say that global warming has already
begun.
Some environmental scientists are saying
global warming has already begun.
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2.
A relative pronoun must follow its antecedent directly. The antecedent must be a noun or
pronoun; it cannot be an idea.
Poor Writing
Clear Writing
The father of the bride, who paid for the
wedding, just declared bankruptcy.
The bride’s father, who just declared
bankruptcy, paid for the wedding.
My grammar is improving, which will help
me get a better job.
Since my grammar is improving, I should
be able to get a better job.
3.
Commonly confused pronouns
Pronouns
Who’s
Whose
There
Theirs
They’re
You’re
Your
Theirself
Theirselves
Themselves
Them
Definition
Who’s is a contraction for who is.
Whose book is this? (Not, Who’s book is this?)
There is an adverb. Is anyone there?
Theirs is a pronoun. Which bus is theirs?
They‘re is a contraction for they are. They’re late as usual.
You’re is a contraction for you are. You’re in this alone.
(Not, Your in this alone.)
Theirself and theirselves are substandard. Use themselves instead.
They did it to themselves.
Them is the objective case of they. It cannot be used to modify
other words.
Where did you get those shoes? (Not them shoes). I bought them at
the mall.
Usage Exercises: The antecedents for the pronouns in these sentences are not obvious.
Rewrite the sentences to make the sentences clear.
1. When baking a cake, it should be done in a clean place.
2. Maria asked her sister where her camera was.
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3.
They have not yet revised the rules for the club.
Section D
Parts of Speech – Verbs
Definition
Clue
Uses
A verb is a word that tells
what the subject is doing,
what is being done to the
subject, or the state or
condition of the subject.
Examples: John hit the
boy. Hit is an action verb
and shows what the subject
did. The boy was hit by
John. Was hit is a passive
verb and expresses what
was done to the boy.
In this sentence boy is the
subject. The passive voice
is formed by combining “to
be” with a past participle; it
must also have an actor (by
John). In I am done, am is
the verb and done is an
adjective; there is no actor.
In I am nice, am is a stateof-being verb and shows the
condition of the subject, i.e.,
the subject I exists as a nice
person.
A verb is a word that can be
conjugated. The format for
conjugation is as follows:
A verb not only shows
action, but it tells the time of
the action and the time
relationships of different
actions.
The present and past tenses
use single words as verbs.
The perfect tenses use the
helping verbs have for present
perfect; had for past perfect;
and will have for future
perfect. Future tenses use the
helping verbs will or shall.
Progressive tenses use the
verb to be: am, is, are, was,
were, etc.
Examples:
Present tense: I go to the
store everyday.
Past tense: I went to the store
yesterday.
Present perfect (shows
repetition of a past action): I
have gone to the store many
times.
Future: I will go to the store
tomorrow.
Singular
I_______
You____
He/she_____
Example:
I go
You go
He/she goes
Plural
We______
You_____
They____
We go
You go
They go
Insert the word that you think
might be a verb, and if it can
be conjugated, you have found
a verb – usually.
Exception: After driving her
husband to his job, she goes to
her own. Since driving cannot
be conjugated without a
helping verb, it is not acting as
a verb in this case.
The most irregular verb is to
be, and it simply must be
memorized.
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Principal Parts of Verbs
Since every action takes place in time, we need a way of distinguishing between actions
happening now, actions that have already happened and those that are yet to happen. English
usually makes these distinctions of time by spelling the verbs differently for each time (tense).
The forms for the six English tenses are formed from the three principal parts of the verb.
1st or Present
2nd or Past
call
called
called
sing
sang
sung
3rd or Past Participle
The six tenses can be formed from these three principal parts.
Present:
Past:
Future:
Present perfect:
Past perfect
Future perfect:
I call
I sing
I called
I sang
I shall call
I shall sing
I have called
I have sung
I had called
I had sung
I shall have called
I shall have sung
from 1st principal part
from 2nd principal part
from 1st principal part
from 3rd principal part
from 3rd principal part
from 3rd principal part
Call is like most verbs; it is a regular verb. Regular verbs form the 2nd and 3rd principal
parts by adding “ed” or, if a word ends in “e,” simply “d.” Unfortunately, not all English verbs
are regular. Some are irregular. Words such as sing form the 2nd and 3rd principal parts in
unusual ways. Most of the irregular verbs people learn as they hear English speakers who use
the language well. Some should be memorized.
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Memorize: the principal parts of the verb to be and to have:
Present Tense
Past Tense
am, are, is
was, were
have, has
had
Perfect Tense
have been
has been
had been
have had
has had
Future Tense
will (shall) be
will (shall) have
Progressive Tense
am, are, is being
was, were being
had been being
am, are, is having
was, were having
had been having
Verb Exercises
1.
Read again the sentences from “Dr. Heidegger’s Experiment” in Section A (page 3).
Then, in the column provided, place a V if the underlined word is a verb or N if it is not.
Finally, identify the tense if the word is a verb.
Sentence
V or N
Tense
1. “It was a dim, old-fashioned chamber….”
2. “Around the walls stood several….”
2.
For each of the five nouns you selected in Section A, now select a verb.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Section E
Parts of Speech – Verbs (continued) Read these sentences from Our Town:
“Stagehands remove the chairs, tables and trellises from the Gibbs and Webb houses.
They arrange the pews for the church in the center of the stage. The congregation will sit
facing the back wall.”
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Identify the word form as a V (verb) or N (non verb). Give the tense for the verbs.
Word
V or N
Tense
1. remove
2. houses
3. arrange
4. They
5. will sit
Write the past tenses for these verbs.
Verb
Past Simple
Past Participle
give
build
hoe
read
study
Section F
Commonly Confused Verbs
Verb
Lay
Lie
Definition
Lay means to place or put and must always be followed by a noun or pronoun (an
object).
Lie means to recline.
Examples: I lie down for a nap every day. (present tense of to lie) I lay down every
day. (past tense of to lie) I lay the book on the table. (present tense of to lay)
Hint: If you can say put then use lay; if not, don’t.
Verb
Set
Sit
Definition
Set is exactly like lay. It too can be interchanged with put.
Sit means to rest with the body supported by the buttocks or thighs.
Example: I set the book on the table. I sit down.
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Learn the principal parts of these verbs
Verb
to lie: lie, lay, lain
(recline)
to lay: lay, laid, laid
(set, put)
Example
I lie down today.
I lay down yesterday.
I have lain down every day.
I lay the book down just now.
I laid it down yesterday.
I have always laid it there.
The confusion is obvious; the present tense of lay is the same as the simple past tense of lie.
Verb
let
leave
was
were
may
can
might
could
Definition
Let means to allow or permit: Let him go. (Not, Leave him go.)
Leave means to depart from or to deposit: Leave this room.
Was is singular; were is plural: Were you sitting with Miguel at the
game? (Not, Was you...) You always takes a plural verb form.
May has to do with permission, and can has to do with ability. May I
use your computer? Can you? (Do I have permission to use your
computer? Are you able to use it?)
Commonly Confused Past Tenses
Word
went (simple past)
gone (past participle)
wrote
written
swam
swum
rang
rung
dragged
drug
known
knew
ran
run
came
come
Example
I went over there last night.
I should have gone (not went) over there last night.
I wrote her a note.
I should have written (not wrote) her a note.
I swam the whole five miles.
I could have swum (not swam) the whole five miles.
He rang the bell.
Has the bell rung (not rang)?
He dragged (not drug) her off, kicking and screaming.
Drug is substandard English.
He should have known (not knew) who I was.
He knew who I was.
They ran a four-minute mile.
He has just run (not ran) a four-minute mile.
I came over early.
She has come (not came) to my house before.
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Usage Exercises: Write a sentence using each of the following past participles. Remember
that a past participle needs a helping verb; use was, were, has, have, or had with the past
participle.
(brought)
(chosen)
(come)
(done)
(drunk)
(driven)
(eaten)
(flown)
Section G
Parts of Speech – Adjectives
Definition
Clue
Adjectives modify (limit, identify,
or describe) nouns.
Adjectives answer the
questions:
Example: Look at the dog. Dog is
the noun, but you don’t know to
which dog the speaker is referring.
Add the adjective black to the
sentence:
Which one? or
Look at the black dog.
Now you know which dog the
speaker wants you to notice.
What kind? or
How many?
In the previous
example, black
answers the question
which one.
Uses
Adjectives help the reader
visualize what the speaker
or writer is describing.
They make the noun more
specific. Adjectives also
make comparisons, usually
by adding er or est.
Example: young, younger,
youngest or pale, paler,
palest. Some adjectives
change form when making
comparisons: good, better,
best
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Adjective Exercises
1. Circle the adjectives in the sentences from To Kill a Mockingbird.
“They wore cotton sunbonnets and dresses with long sleeves. A bearded man in a wool
hat drove them.”
2. Add a single word adjective to each of your original five nouns that you wrote down in
Section A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Section H
Commonly Confused Adjectives
Adjective
Fewer
Less
Definition
Fewer refers to a number, a quantity that can be counted. Example: There
are fewer drops of water in the bucket. There were fewer people there
than he had expected.
Less refers to a degree, value or amount. There is less water in the
bucket. There was less of an audience than he had expected.
Write one sentence using fewer and one using less to illustrate the rule.
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Making comparisons: Adjectives show degrees of quality. Usually, an er indicates a
comparative degree (funnier), and est indicates a superlative or highest degree (funniest).
Some adjectives are irregular:
little, less, least
good, better, best
bad, worse, worst
far, further or farther, furthest or
farthest
Adjectives with more than two syllables use more or less for the comparative and most or least
for the superlative:
fortunate, more fortunate, most fortunate, less fortunate, least fortunate
When using an adjective to make a comparison, remember to complete the comparison. For
example:
Incomplete
You are certainly a better student.
Clear
You are certainly a better student than
you were last year.
Finish these comparisons:
Most boys enjoy soccer more (More than what?)
That house is bigger
Marcos is a better worker
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Section I
Parts of Speech – Adverbs
Definition
Clue
Adverbs modify (limit,
identify, or describe) verbs,
adjectives, and other
adverbs. To check whether
a noun is modified by two
adjectives or the adjective is
being modified by an
adverb, put the first modifier
with the noun. If it makes
sense, it is an adjective; if it
needs the second modifier, it
is an adverb. Example: Biff
is very well liked. Very
modifies well; it does not
modify Biff. Very is an
adverb.
Adverbs answer the
questions:
how? when? where? or to
what extent? Example: He
ran very fast. How did he run?
Fast. To what extent (was he
fast)? Very. Both very and
fast are adverbs.
Adverbs often end in ly:
(quickly, slowly, neatly,
impatiently, etc.).
Words that are added for
emphasis are usually adverbs.
These include indeed,
however, surely, hardly, only,
scarcely.
Uses
Adverbs help to make
adjectives, adverbs, and
verbs more exact and give
you a clearer mental picture.
Adverbs also make
comparisons of degrees.
Example: Biff ran faster than
any other member of the
football team.
Adverb Exercises
Circle the single word adverbs in the passages:
1.
“Atticus was feeble; he was nearly fifty.”
2.
“He walked erratically….”
3.
“She spoke quietly, contemptuously.”
4.
“Things are always better in the morning.”
Identify the words in italics in the sentences as either adverbs or adjectives by placing adv. or
adj. in the blank provided:
1.
Jem was the fastest runner of the three._______
2.
After school that day, he ran faster than he had ever run.________
3.
This had been a slow morning for Scout.________
4.
The hands on the clock were moving so slowly!_______
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Section J
Commonly Confused Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjective
Adverb
All ready
Already
Good
Well
Explanation
All ready is a combination used to describe a group’s state of
readiness. Example: We are all ready. Already is one word
meaning previously.
Example: Jem and Scout had already finished school for the year
before Dill arrived.
Good is an adjective and well is an adverb, except when describing
a physical state.
He is a good runner. He runs well or I don’t feel well.
Verbs that are intended to show a state of being (seem, feel, am, smell) should be
followed by an adjective. To say “I feel badly” means that you have a bad sense of touch. It is
better to say “I feel bad” to indicate you feel sorry for the person or that you are feeling sick.
Note the difference between He looked careful and He looked carefully.
Use of double negatives: Hardly, scarcely, only, but, not are negative adverbs, i.e., they
transform a positive statement into a negative one. Example: Compare, “I am at school” to “I
am not at school.” Technically, the sentence “I can’t hardly read this assignment” means that
the person can do the work. Two negatives cancel each other to make a positive.
Adverbs also have comparative and superlative forms: fast, faster, fastest. Like
adjectives, the longer adverbs use more/most and less/least to make the comparisons: She was
walking more hurriedly than usual.
Usage Review: Fill in the blank with the correct word.
1.
The children felt _____________ (bad, badly) about not being able to help Tom
Robinson.
2.
Calpurnia saw that Scout _______________hardly _________________a bite of
dinner. (had, had not/ ate, eaten.)
3.
“Have you __________ finished your homework?” Atticus asked his son. (all
ready, already)
4.
Atticus was a _________ good marksman. (real, really)
5.
The dog moved very __________ down the street. (slowly, slow)
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Section K
Parts of Speech – Prepositions
Definition
Clue
Uses
A preposition is a
connecting word that
shows the relation of a
noun or a pronoun to some
other word in a sentence.
Example: Willy was not a
man of the world.
Of is a preposition; it shows
a relationship between Willy
and world.
A preposition is always
followed by an object. The
object will always be a noun
or pronoun.
Example: He ran out the
door.
Door is the object of out;
therefore, out is a preposition.
However, if you say, “I am
going out,” out has no object,
and since it tells where, in this
sentence it is acting as an
adverb.
Alert! To + a verb (such as to
go) is called an infinitive. To
must be followed by a noun
or pronoun to be a
preposition.
Prepositions introduce
prepositional phrases.
Prepositional phrases act as
adjectives or adverbs in
sentences.
Example: I just want a room
of my own. Of my own
answers the question which
room so it is a prepositional
phrase acting as an adjective.
Example: I just want to go to
the store. To the store tells
where the person wants to go,
so it is an adverb.
Common prepositions: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before,
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, concerning, despite, down,
during, except, excepting, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside,
over, past, regarding, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath,
until, up, upon, with, within, without.
Common prepositional combinations: according to, along with, apart from, as for, as to,
because of, by means of, by reason of, by way of, due to, except for, in addition to, in case of,
in front of, in place of, in regard to, in spite of, instead of, on account of, out of, up to, with
reference to, with regard to, with respect to, with the exception of.
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Preposition Exercises
Supply the correct word:
1.
Scout was ______________ taller than ________________. (all ready, already / he, him)
2.
Just between you and _________, I think that Calpurnia is doing an excellent job. (me, I )
3.
Your complaints about her are _________________ the point. (besides, beside)
4.
It was difficult to choose _________________ the two. (between, among)
5.
Circle the prepositional phrases in the sentences.
“Atticus leaned back in his rocking-chair. For some reason he looked pleased with Jem.”
6.
Write five sentences including at least one prepositional phrase in each. Circle the
phrases.
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Section L
Parts of Speech – Conjunctions
Definition
Clue
Uses
Conjunctions connect
words or groups of
words. There are three
types of conjunctions:
coordinating,
correlative and
subordinating.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
and, but, or, for, nor, so, yet.
Correlative Conjunctions: bothand, neither-nor, either-or, butalso, whether-or. Correlative
conjunctions are always found
together.
Example: Neither he nor I would
choose to attend.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
See next page.
Coordinating conjunctions
connect words and groups of
words of equal importance.
Subordinating conjunctions
weaken a sentence so that it
must attach to another
sentence.
Example: If he goes, I won’t.
If weakens he goes so it
cannot stand alone, it must
attach itself to an independent
clause.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after
ever since
so that
although
except that
that
as
if
unless
as if
if only
until
as long as
inasmuch as
when
as often as
in case
whenever
as though
in order that
where
before
just as
wherever
because
now that
whereupon
but
provided that
while
even if
since
Alert! The following words are not conjunctions; they are adverbs, sometimes called
conjunctive adverbs. They indicate transitions (or changes) in a train of thought, not
connections. Familiarize yourself with these transition markers: also, anyhow, anyway,
besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead,
likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly,
still, then, therefore, thus.
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Conjunction Exercises
1.
Underline all of the conjunctions in the following passage.
Circle any conjunctive
adverbs that you may find.
When you come to a word you don’t know, underline or highlight it. Continue
reading and try to figure out the meaning. When you have finished the story, go
back and make a guess about the meaning.
2.
Now, write one sentence that contains a noun and one that contains a pronoun, and connect
them with a subordinating conjunction. Begin this new sentence with the subordinating
conjunction and put a comma after that sentence before adding your second sentence.
Example: Although Katrina was in a hurry, she waited for her sister.
noun sentence
pronoun sentence
new sentence combining the two with a subordinating conjunction
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Section M
Usage – Conjunctions versus Prepositions
 Than is a conjunction, not a preposition, and, therefore, is followed by the subjective case.
Examples: No one is nicer than she (is nice).
 As is a conjunction and is followed by the subjective case. Example of the conjunction as:
Tony runs almost as quickly as Jaime (runs).
 As should not be confused with like, which is a preposition and is followed by the objective
case. Example of the preposition like: Tony looks just like him.
 Kind of and sort of should not have an article (a, an, or the) following of. Example: He is
a sort of trouble-shooter at the factory. (Not: He is sort of a trouble shooter. . . .)
 Among is used when there are more than two people, animals, or things being discussed.
Example: A discussion quickly erupted among the group of candidates. Between is used
where there are only two people, animals or things. Example: An argument quickly
erupted between the two candidates.
 At is used to denote a particular point. Example: I stopped at your house.
 In is used to denote a more general locality. Example: I drove in the area of your house.
 Beside is a preposition meaning by the side of or apart from. Example: He was laid to rest
beside his wife. Besides is a preposition or adverb meaning in addition to, moreover,
except. Example: Besides his daughter, Mr. Hernandez is survived by a brother and two
sisters.
Section N
Parts of Speech – Interjections
Interjections are exclamations; they show strong emotion. Examples: Wow! Good! Oh!
Interjection Exercise: Think of four additional interjections.
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Parts of Speech Review: Identify the part of speech of every word in the following sentence.
Use abbreviations: noun (N), pronoun (PN), adjective (ADJ), verb (V), adverb (ADV),
preposition (PREP), article [a, an, the] (ART), and conjunction (C). There are no interjections.
As the Kings watched hopefully, the Negroes of Montgomery continued the successful
bus boycott.
Section O
Parts of a Sentence – Phrases and Clauses
Every word has an identity as a part of speech. Each part of speech has a job to do within
its own cluster of words. Each of these clusters of words also functions as a single unit and can
be identified as a part of speech. Before you let yourself get confused, think of a sentence as
being like a football team. The team has two units: (1) defense and (2) offense, and each unit is
made up of individual players. Everyone is on one team, but a defensive tackle plays in the
defensive unit while an offensive linesman plays with the offensive unit.
Phrase
Think of the clusters as being special units of a football team. Some word clusters are
called phrases. Phrases do not contain subjects and verbs; they may contain words that look
like verbs, but when they appear in a form that cannot be conjugated they are not considered to
be verbs.
Example: Mr. Auld, reacting quickly, told his wife that she could no longer give
Frederick Douglass reading lessons in her free time.
Reacting cannot be conjugated without a helping verb. In this sentence, it is acting as part
of an adjective phrase describing Mr. Auld. There is another phrase in this sentence. “…in
her free time” is a prepositional phrase acting as an adverb, describing when.
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Clause
The other kind of word cluster is called a clause. A clause is a group of words which
contains both a subject (noun or pronoun) and a verb. An independent clause is another name
for a group of words which could stand as a sentence. A dependent clause is too weak to stand
alone and must attach itself to a sentence or must function as a unit as a single part of speech.
Dependent clauses are easy to spot because they always begin with a subordinate conjunction
or a relative pronoun.
Examples
1.
Frederick Douglass quickly learned the alphabet….
Now we will add a dependent clause that acts like an adverb, answering the question
“when,” and the sentence becomes more informative.
Frederick Douglass quickly learned the alphabet when he asked Mrs. Auld for assistance.
2.
…he could not inform the school authorities….
Harper Lee added a dependent clause. The actual sentence reads:
As he [Francis] lived in Mobile, he could not inform the school authorities….
With the addition of this adverb clause, the reader understands why Francis could not
inform the authorities about Scout.
Clause and Phrase Exercise: Identify the part of speech function of each of the underlined
word clusters.
1. “I knew that the South Jackson line, which ran past our house, carried more Negro
passengers than any other line in Montgomery ….” ________________________________
2.
In the daylight, he saw a new land. ____________________________________________
3. Frederick Douglass quickly learned the alphabet when he asked Mrs. Auld for assistance.
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Section P
Complete Sentences
As you have learned, a sentence includes at least one independent clause. This means it
can stand alone; it doesn’t need any more words or groups of words to finalize the meaning.
An independent clause is made up of two things: a subject and a predicate. At its simplest,
the subject is a one word noun or pronoun and the predicate is a single verb. A sentence begins
with a capital letter and ends with a period. (Poetry is an exception to this rule. In most poetry,
each line begins with a capital.)
Example of a complete sentence: Jane runs.
Jane is a proper noun and is the subject of the sentence. Jane is what the sentence is about.
Runs is a verb; it can be conjugated (I run, you run, she runs). Runs is the predicate in this
simple sentence.
Although there is not much information in these two words, the two words do give you a
complete thought. It is a sentence, and it is properly punctuated with a capital at the
beginning and a period at the end.
Two words can be a sentence. Having more words does not ensure having a sentence,
i.e., a complete thought or an independent clause. Example: When Jane runs. Instinctively, you
are thinking, “and...?” or “so...?” You need more information to make this a complete sentence.
How can two words be a sentence and three words not be? The word when is a
subordinate conjunction, and anytime it is added to a subject and verb, it weakens them so that
they can no longer stand alone. They no longer are independent; they are less than a complete
thought and are subordinate.
Also, to be able to stand alone as a sentence, the verb in the predicate must be in a form
that can be conjugated.
Example: Juan, running down the street.
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While Juan is a proper noun and is perfectly capable of acting as the subject of the
sentence, running by itself is not in a form that can be conjugated. “Juan, running down the
street” is not a sentence.
A final note: Some sentences have an understood you as the subject. If you cannot find a noun
or pronoun subject, try inserting you for the subject.
Example: Stop at Walmart on the way home.
This is a good example of the understood you: (You) stop at Walmart. You (understood) is the
subject of this sentence.
Complete Sentences Exercise
To be able to ascertain or figure out whether a group of words is a sentence, you must
first be able to recognize the subject and verb. In the following lines, underline the noun or
pronoun that is the subject once and underline the verb twice. If the subject is an understood
you, write you in parentheses ( ).
1. Frederick Douglass learned to read.
2. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. led a bus boycott.
3. The oration of Chief Seattle became very famous.
4. Come away from the window.
Helpful Hints
To find the subject, ask yourself one question: What is the sentence about? Find the noun
or nouns, pronoun or pronouns that answer this question. To find the verb, ask yourself two
questions: (1) What is the subject doing? and (2) Can what he or she or it is doing be
conjugated in the form as it appears in a group of words? In other words, is it a verb in this
word cluster?
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Section Q
Complete Sentence Exercises (continued)
1.
In the passage below, underline once the noun or pronoun that is the subject and underline
the verb twice.
Miss Emily gave lessons in china-painting when she was about forty.
2.
Make Miss Emily, the town, Colonel Sartoris, and Homer Barron each the subject of a
sentence. Use single word verbs and do not add any modifying words, phrases, or
clauses.
Example: Miss Emily died.
(Miss Emily)
(the town)
(Colonel Sartoris)
(Homer Barron)
Complete Subjects: The complete subject is the noun or pronoun along with all of the noun’s
or pronoun’s modifiers.
Example: Having a flair for the dramatic, Jane, who’s my next door neighbor, runs.
Jane is the simple subject, but a participle phrase (having a flair for the dramatic) and a
relative clause (who’s my next door neighbor) have been added to give the reader more
information about Jane, the subject.
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Complete Predicate: The complete predicate is the verb plus all of its modifiers.
In our first sentence, Jane runs, we had a complete—although not very informative—
thought. The noun Jane and the verb runs were all we needed for a complete sentence. Our
next step was to add modifiers to the noun, and now, although technically our sentence is still
complete (Having a flair for the dramatic, Jane, who’s my next door neighbor, runs) we want
more information in the predicate. A single verb is not enough. With all of the modifiers in the
subject, our brain tells us we need to balance the sentence by adding modifiers to the verb.
We need adverbs. Where does she run? Why does she run? So, let’s add modifiers to
the verb: Having a flair for the dramatic, Jane, who’s my next door neighbor, runs five miles to
work everyday.
Runs five miles to work everyday is the complete predicate. Runs is the verb; five miles is
acting as an adverb; to work is acting as an adverb, and everyday is acting as an adverb.
Section R
Subject and Predicate Exercises
1.
In the sentence below, underline the simple subject once and the complete predicate
twice.
The spring air, full of the smell of growing grass and unseen blossoms, came in their
faces.
2.
Using the same passage, underline the complete subject once and the simple predicate,
i.e., the verb alone, twice.
The spring air, full of the smell of growing grass and unseen blossoms, came in their
faces.
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3.
Now, go back to your original, short sentences (Miss Emily died.) and add modifiers to
the subject and to the verb of each sentence. Underline your simple subject once and your
simple verb twice. Put brackets, [ ], around the complete predicate.
Section S
Parts of a Sentence – Direct Objects
So far, our subjects and verbs have been segregated from each other. The words in the
subject modified the simple subject, Jane, and the words in the predicate modified the simple
predicate, the verb, runs. Very often, however, the subject and predicate are not so clearly
separate; many times words in the predicate refer to the simple subject.
Direct Object: The noun or pronoun in the predicate that receives the action of the verb.
A direct object answers the question what? or whom? after the verb.
Example: Sarah caught the ball. What was caught? The ball. The ball is the direct object.
Direct objects can be found only after transitive verbs; these are verbs that show action (in a
very broad sense) and require an object of that action to follow.
Examples: attack, ask, bear (i.e., to bear a grudge or a burden), begin, blow, break, bring, etc.
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Note
Direct objects are never found after the verb “to be” (am, are, is, was, were, has or have
been, had been, shall be, will be, should or could or would have been, etc.)
There are three basic parts to a sentence containing a direct object:
1.
The subject - a noun or pronoun that is doing the action
2.
The verb - what the noun or pronoun is doing
3.
The direct object - the noun or pronoun that the subject is acting upon
Example: The quarterback threw a touchdown pass. The sentence is about the quarterback,
so quarterback is the subject. Threw tells what the quarterback did, and pass tells to what
he did it. Since pass received the action of the subject, pass is a direct object.
Parts of a Sentence Exercise
Underline each simple subject once and each simple verb twice. Circle the direct objects.
“Mr. Martin bought the pack of gum on Monday night….”
“Mr. Martin’s heart had jumped.”
“He polished his glasses more often….”
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Section T
Subject and Predicate Exercises (continued)
1.
Underline the simple subject once and the simple verb twice. Circle the direct objects,
but first, cross out the dependent clauses and prepositional phrases.
He shook his head from side to side.
2. Make up direct objects: Write four sentences according to the directions:

Willy as a subject.

Willy as a direct object.

Biff as a subject.

Biff as a direct object.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Section U
Parts of a Sentence – Objective and Subjective Complements
An objective complement is a word that refers to or modifies the direct object
Example: They painted the ceiling white. White modifies ceiling – the white ceiling –
so it is functioning as an objective complement.
A subjective complement is a word or words in the predicate but referring to the subject.
When a subjective complement restates the subject, it is called a predicate nominative or
predicate noun. When the subjective complement modifies the subject, it is called a predicate
adjective. Subjective complements complete the meaning of a linking verb. The linking verbs
are become, seem, appear, feel, look, taste, smell, sound, and to be.
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Subjective Complement – Predicate Nominative
A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun, found in the predicate and meaning the
same thing as the subject. Usually, predicate nominatives follow the verb “to be.”
Example: Arthur Miller is a famous playwright. Playwright is a noun meaning the
same thing as the subject, Arthur Miller. Predicate nominatives may also be referred to
as predicate nouns.
Subjective Complement or Predicate Adjective
An adjective found in the predicate that modifies the subject. A predicate adjective can be a
single word adjective or a word cluster that is functioning as an adjective.
Example:
The uniforms are red and white. You could say the red and white
uniforms, so you know red and white are modifying the noun uniforms, the subject of
the sentence.
Direct Object and Subjective Complement Review
Distinguish between direct objects and predicate nominatives in the following sentences.
If the word in the predicate is a direct object, draw an arrow from the verb to that word. If the
word is a predicate nominative or predicate adjective, draw an arrow from that word to the
subject.
1.
Willie was a salesman.
2.
He carried two large sample cases.
3.
He is exhausted.
4.
He wanted Swiss cheese.
5.
He is the father of Biff and Happy.
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Section V
Usage – Completing the Verb To Be
The verb “to be” is always completed by a noun, pronoun, or adjective, but never by an adverb.
Correct
He was late because he missed the bus.
He is the subject; was is the verb; late is an adjective functioning as a predicate
adjective, and because he missed the bus is an adverb clause modifying the adjective late.
Poor or Incorrect
The reason he was late was that he missed the bus.
In this sentence, reason is a noun, functioning as the subject. The verb is was. That he
missed the bus is an adverb telling why he was late; but this adverb clause is not where it
should be to modify the adjective clause (that) he was late.
Here are two more examples.
Incorrect
Correct
Sunday is when I like to go hiking.
I like to go hiking on Sunday.
Prevaricating is when you tell a big lie
that is untrue.
Prevaricating is another word for
lying.
Correct these sentences
1.
Happiness is when you have a good job, good health and a loving family.
2.
The reason you were late for class is because you were up too late.
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3.
The super market is where we go for dried beans.
Section W
Types of Sentences
Sentences are referred to either by their grammatical structure or by their job. The
grammatical structure is one of the following: simple, compound, complex, and compound /
complex. Sentences that are not structured according to the current standards of English are
called sentence fragments or run-on sentences. Sentence fragments are missing an essential,
grammatical component: either a subject or a verb or they include a word that weakens them,
such as a subordinating conjunction. Run-on sentences need something added to make them
correct: a mark of punctuation or a conjunction.
Grammatical Type
Definition
one independent clause that contains a subject and a verb or a
simple sentence
compound subject and single verb or a single subject and
compound verb.
two independent clauses connected by a comma and a
compound sentence
coordinating conjunction or by a semi-colon.
one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
complex sentence
beginning with a subordinate conjunction or relative pronoun
and functioning as an adverb or adjective.
compound/complex sentence two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
Sentences are also referred to according to the job they do. There are four types:
1. Declarative: A straightforward statement of fact, such as, I spent the day in the orchard.
2. Imperative: A command, such as, Get yourself to the orchard, now!
3. Interrogative: A question, such as, Have you been in the orchard all day?
4. Exclamatory: An exclamation of surprise, such as, You really stayed there all day!
All the examples shown are simple sentences, but compound, complex, and
compound/complex sentences also fall into a job category, i.e., declarative, imperative,
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interrogative, and exclamatory. Example: Whenever he’s not in the fields with me, I know that
he was sent to the orchards. This is an example of a declarative, complex sentence.
Sentence Review
The lines are taken from The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. In the first blank provided,
write the type of sentence each is according to its grammatical structure (simple, compound,
complex, compound/complex). If it is not a complete sentence, write SF (sentence fragment).
In the second blank provided, write down the kind of sentence it is according to the job it is
doing (declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory).
Type of Sentence
Kind of Sentence
1.
2.
Example
The flooded island disappeared into a shimmer
that looked like glass.
I bounded right onto the ashes of a campfire
that was still smoking.
3.
Oh, my lordy, lordy!
4.
What’s your real name?
5.
Huck…decided to go to town anyway.
6.
Git up!
Section X
Sentence Fragments
A complete sentence must contain both a subject and a verb. Some groups of words may
look like sentences, but upon close inspection, they will prove not to be. Two factors will
cause a group of words that seemingly contains a subject and verb to fail “the sentence test”:
1.
It is introduced by a subordinate conjunction
2.
The verb is not in a form that can be conjugated.
and
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Test yourself on these examples.
1. Whenever the repairman comes.
2. Dancing along the sidewalk, Joelly.
3. Bingo chasing the ball.
4. Completing the essay, a long one.
5. No time to finish.
All of the above are sentence fragments. Rewrite them as complete sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Section Y
Sentence Structure
Sentences also need to have a subject. However, sentences may have an understood you
as the subject. An understood you is the way most imperative sentences begin. Example: Get
your homework done right now! The subject is you, an understood you, so it is implied rather
than written. The following are all complete sentences and have as their subject an understood
you:
1.
Don’t touch it!
2.
Finish the lawn first, please.
3.
Pick up the groceries on your way.
Rewrite these sentences to include the understood subject.
1.
2.
3.
In the English language, sentence structure is normally subject + predicate. However,
questions usually reverse this order or begin with a form of to do.
Examples:
1.
Have you already finished the assignment?
2.
Did you finish the assignment?
Rewrite these sentences in normal word order.
1.
2.
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Section Z
Sentence Structure (continued)
Inverted word order is also used when a writer wants to make a point, such as, “So
graceful were her steps.” In normal word order the sentence would be: “Her steps were so
graceful.” But the statement then becomes rather bland - not nearly so effective. Poetry often
reverses word order. Poets do this to heighten the reader’s awareness of certain words or to
maintain the particular rhythm of the poem.
Examples:
1.
“A single flow’r he sent me, since we met.”
2.
“There dwelt a man in fair Westmoreland….”
Rewrite the sentences in normal word order.
1.
2.
Usage: Run-on Sentences
Run-on sentences occur when two complete sentences are joined without including the
necessary punctuation and/or conjunction. Run-on sentences are not necessarily long; they are
just in an improper format.
Example: I met a man his name was Pete. Correct the run-on sentence in two different
ways.
1.
2.
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Section AA
Writing Complete Sentences
Identify the following as CS if it is a complete sentence, SF if it is a sentence fragment
and RO if it is a run-on. Correct any sentence fragment or run-on. To make your corrections,
you may have to add or drop a word or two as well as change the punctuation.
CS, SF
or RO
Correction of Sentence Fragment
or Run-On
Sentence
1. When Abraham Lincoln was elected
president.
2. The wayfarer, perceiving the pathway to
truth, was struck with astonishment….
3. He is all pine I am apple orchard.
4. I went to the dances at Chandlerville one
time we changed partners.
5. Miniver Cheevy, child of scorn.
6. Reverend Wiley advised me not to
divorce him for the sake of the children.
7. With a bobolink for a chorister – and an
orchard, for a dome.
8. Do not weep, babe, for war is kind.
9. A scented gift and remembrancer
designedly dropped.
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Section BB
Sentence Review
Using all of your knowledge of complete sentences, including compound, complex,
compound/complex forms as well as inverted word order, rewrite the paragraph to make it
more interesting. Add words as necessary.
It was Saturday. It was raining. It had rained for six days. It was dark. It was
gloomy. The trees were dripping. Soccer was cancelled. The field was mud.
Everyone was home. There was nothing to do. We were angry with each other. The
younger kids were fighting. They were playing some game. Then I had an idea.
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Section CC
Mechanics – Punctuation and Capitalization
Punctuation is used in written language to imitate spoken language. It is a prime example
of form following function. Generally, capitalization, commas, periods, semi-colons, and
colons indicate not only where a person would pause when speaking but also the extent – the
length of time – of the pause. Because most people read much faster than they talk, punctuation
helps point out the essential elements of the sentence. Good readers, then, are able to scan
written material and glean the main points of an article, document, or story very quickly. These
kinds of readers have mastered the elements of a sentence and use the marks of punctuation to
facilitate their ability to glance down a page, find the subject and verb of each sentence, and
understand almost immediately what the paper (article, story, paragraph, essay) is about. Then
later, at their leisure, these people can take the time to read the sentences more closely.
Rarely is it possible for a person to clarify written communication without having a grasp
of the grammar of the language. In other words, a person must know the essential information
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contained in a sentence (the subject and the verb) in order to highlight that in writing. The nonessential elements of a sentence are the words, phrases, and clauses that function only to qualify
the subject and verb. Modifiers give the reader more information, and usually important
information, about the subject and what the subject is doing, but modifiers do not provide
essential information about the subject.
PUNCTUATION
In standard English prose (non-poetry), all sentences begin with a capital letter and end
with a period. Example: Pretty soon I wanted to smoke, and asked the widow to let me.
Punctuation of different types of sentences
Simple sentences
A sentence made up of one subject and one verb, more than one subject and one verb or
one subject and more than one verb.
Examples:
one subject, one verb: She knew everyone in town.
more than one subject, one verb: The men and the women visited the museum as soon
as it opened.
one subject, more than one verb: She hungered and thirsted for righteousness….
Compound sentences
A sentence made up of two independent clauses – each could stand alone as an individual
sentence. The two independent clauses are separated by a comma plus a coordinating
conjunction (and, but, or, nor) or by a semi-colon.
Examples:
Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike.
Twelve voices were shouting in anger; they were all alike.
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Exception
If the two independent clauses are very short, only a coordinating conjunction or a
comma is used to separate the two clauses.
Example: (You) Come, sit down.
Complex sentences:
A sentence made up of a subordinate clause and an independent clause. (Subordinate
clauses begin with a subordinate conjunction.) When the sentence begins with the subordinate
clause, a comma separates this clause from the independent clause that follows. The comma,
then, comes at the end of the subordinate clause. However, when the subordinate clause
follows the independent clause, a comma is used only in rare cases, only when truly needed for
clarification.
Example:
Introductory subordinate clause:
As soon as Tom was back, we cut along the path ….
Non-introductory subordinate clause:
He had got the dream fixed so strong in his head that he couldn’t seem to
shake it loose ….
(He had got the dream fixed so strong in his head is the independent clause; that he
couldn’t seem to shake it loose is a subordinate clause.)
Compound, complex sentence
A sentence made up of at least one subordinate clause and more than one independent
clause. When the subordinate clauses introduce the sentence, a comma comes after these
clauses and before the independent clause. When the independent clause introduces the
sentence, a comma usually does not separate the independent from the subordinate.
Example: Mark Twain wrote novels and nonfiction, and he also went on lecture tours
when he needed money.
(Mark Twain wrote novels and nonfiction, and he also went on lecture tours are the two
independent clauses. The subordinate clause is when he needed money.)
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Section DD
Punctuation within Sentences
Introductory words:
Use a comma after transitional expressions (however, moreover, furthermore, etc.), after
conjunctive adverbs (then, thus, hence, finally, etc.), after interjections (wow, well, gosh, etc.),
and after yes and no.
Introductory phrases:

Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase (a phrase that begins with an ing
form of a verb and functions as an adjective).
Example: Gathering courage, he wiggled and pulled his way towards the approximate
location of the animal.

Use a comma after a confusing or a very long prepositional phrase or a long series of
prepositional phrases.
Example: With all her eagerness for the out-of-doors, she loved books.

Use a comma after an absolute phrase (a phrase that has no grammatical connection
with the sentence.).
Example: Your feelings aside, the doctor is expecting to see you tomorrow.
Introductory clauses:

Use a comma after a subordinate clause.
Example: If I could just die, he thought, it would all be over.
Summary
Use a comma after non-essential words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of
sentences. Do this to help your reader get right to the subject of the sentence.
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Items in a series
Use a comma to separate three or more parallel units; these units may be words, phrases,
or clauses. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction before the last element.
Example: For our picnic, please bring the following: knives, forks, spoons, paper
plates, paper towels, and yourself, of course!
When the elements themselves contain commas, use a semi-colon (;) to separate them
until the last two, which are separated, as usual, by a comma and a conjunction. Example: The
cantaloupes have been so good this year: big, round melons; sweet and juicy, and full of
vitamins.
Non-essential elements in a sentence
Use a comma to set off non-essential words (appositives, interjections, conjunctive
adverbs), non-essential participial phrases, and non-essential adjective (relative) clauses.
Examples:
She wore her hair, bleached and faded as it was, in a long braid.
Marla, who has been baby sitting for them, has left for the summer.
Keep in mind that a primary use for commas is to help the reader find the subject and
verb as quickly as possible. When a word or a word cluster interrupts the main idea of the
sentence or just gives some additional, non-vital information, set off the word or words
with a comma.
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Punctuation Exercise: Punctuate the passage.
two of the most popular forms of nonfiction are the biography and the autobiography
which narrate the events of someone’s life. Essays newspaper articles journals diaries satires
investigative reporting sports articles scientific and technical reports “how-to” instructions
interviews historical accounts and magazine articles are other forms of nonfiction nonfiction
relies on all major forms of discourse description which gives sensory information narration
which tells of a series of events exposition which explains a process or situation and persuasion
or argument which tries to change the way a reader acts or thinks about something they vary
greatly in purpose form length intended audience and tone
Section EE
Special Marks of Punctuation
The Colon (:)
Use a colon to direct attention to what follows: an explanation or summary, a series, the
body of a business letter, or a quotation that is not part of the dialogue in a story. Colons,
however, are never used after the verb “to be.” In the United States, colons are used to separate
hours from minutes (2:15).
The Apostrophe (’)
Use an apostrophe with nouns – not pronouns - to show possession or to show omissions
of letters in words, such as contractions (such as who’s for who is and can’t for cannot).
Apostrophes are never used to indicate plurals, except to avoid confusion in things such as
single letter plurals.
Example: Dot all of your i’s and cross all of your t’s.
Dashes (–)
Dashes are used to indicate an interruption in the sentence. The interruption can be a
single word or a cluster of words. Dashes should be used infrequently and should not replace
parentheses or colons.
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Parentheses ( )
Use parentheses to set off words or clusters of words that interrupt, supplement, or further
illustrate the main idea in the sentence. Similarly, when an entire sentence interrupts,
supplements or further illustrates a preceding sentence, put parentheses around the entire
sentence. When parentheses come at the end of a sentence, put the period outside the
parentheses, but when an entire sentence is put in parentheses, put the period inside, right after
the last word.
Parentheses are also used to enclose letters or numbers used for enumerating ideas: (1) or (a).
Brackets ( [ ] )
Use brackets the same way you would use parentheses when the sentence(s) is already set
off in parentheses. Brackets are also used in quoted material to indicate a voice other than the
person being quoted. Usually, the other voice is the editor or author of the article or essay or
book.
Quotation Marks (“ ”)
Quotation marks are used for anything that is repeated word for word. This is called a
direct quote. When ideas, thoughts, or sentences are not quoted word for word, quotation
marks are not used. This is called an indirect quote and is introduced by the word that.
When putting a quote within a quote, use single quotation marks (‘ ‘) for the internal
quote. When used very sparingly, it is acceptable to use quotation marks to show irony or
sarcasm. Use quotation marks to indicate the title of a short piece of writing: short stories,
essays, one act plays.
Note
Commas and periods always go inside quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation
points vary, depending on the meaning.
Examples: Starting this car has always been “tricky.” Is starting his car “tricky”?
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Underlining or Italics
Underline or italicize words to show emphasis. Underline or italicize the titles of novels,
plays or dramas, collections, names of ships (The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Death of a
Salesman, the Titanic, or The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Death of a Salesman, the
Titanic).
Ellipsis Points or Periods in a series (. . .)
These are used to indicate that a word or words have been left out or to mark a reflective
pause. Use three periods when the ellipsis occurs within a sentence; use four when it ends the
sentence.
Exclamation Point ( ! )
These are used to show strong emotion. Yes! Whoa!
Use appropriate punctuation in these sentences.
1.
our entire class will see death of a salesman
2.
fire fire he shouted
3.
finish your homework first mother said
4.
the next flight is at 214
5.
he cant go because he must wait for carlas flight
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Section FF
Capitalization
Capitalize the first word of a sentence in prose. Often the first word of each line of a
poem is capitalized.
Capitalize all proper nouns, including:

names of people, organizations, government agencies, institutions, schools,
companies

historical documents, periods, and events

days of the week, months, holidays

religions, holy books, holy days, words denoting a supreme being

acronyms (such as YMCA)

titles of people (Governor Ann Richards, but not Ann Richards, governor)

the main words in titles of films, books, plays

the pronoun I
Capitalize Mother and Father when they are used in place of a name: I called down the
hallway, “Mother, we are leaving now.”
NOTE: The names of the seasons are not capitalized (spring, summer, fall, winter).
Mechanics Exercise: Install the correct mechanics in this passage.
abraham lincoln 1809-1865 born in kentucky was self-educated and had various
occupations before studying law he served in the illinois state legislature and in congress before
becoming president the victory of the union troops at gettysburg pennsylvania on July 3 1863
was a turning point of the civil war on november 19 1863 lincoln visited the battlefield to
dedicate a cemetery for the victims of the battle the speech was not immediately recognized for
its greatness but it has come to be considered one of the greatest american speeches.
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Documenting Sources
A research paper is a documented work resulting from an organized analysis of a subject.
Documentation means you give credits to the sources of information on a subject. You read
what others have written and organize the material as an original product. Your contribution is
to determine how certain facts are related and to use these facts to support what you are trying
to prove. This differs from a report in that a report merely presents the facts about a subject. A
research paper is a documented investigation that presents not only the facts, but also a
conclusion, which you draw from the research. The paper must support an original assumption
(thesis statement) by sorting and logically organizing relevant materials published by
authorities on the subject. The documentation for your research paper should be both internal
(parenthetical reference) and a Works Cited page. Begin your documentation by preparing
your Works Cited.
The Works Cited is an organized list of sources (the readings) you have used for a
research paper. This is usually compiled at the completion of the paper. A preliminary Works
Cited list is made by creating index cards for each of the books, magazines, and other works
consulted for research. Some of these cards may be eliminated later if the sources do not prove
helpful. When you have completed the first draft of the research paper, you can prepare a first
Works Cited page. This page can be changed as necessary as you make changes in the paper.
Use the format shown on the next page. Be exact with the punctuation and correct with the
method of indentation. If a piece of information asked for in the form is not given, go to the
next item. For example, if you are using a bulletin without a number, just fill in the next piece
of information that is available.
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Your page should be titled Works Cited. It should be in alphabetical order according to
the author/editor’s last name and look something like the following.
Works Cited
Catford, J.C. “Phonology and the Teaching of Pronunciation.” College English, 27 May
1966, 605-13.
Cohen, B. Bernard. Literature for Understanding. Chicago: Scott Foresman, 1966.
________. Writing about Literature. Chicago: Scott Foresman, 1963.
Lagercrantz, Olof. From Hell to Paradise: Dante and His Comedy. Trans. Alan Blair. New
York: Washington Square Press, 1966.
Parrington, Vernon L. Main Currents in American Thought. 3 vols. New York: Harcourt
Brace, 1927.
This listing shows the proper formatting for various types of materials that you may wish
to include in a research paper. Check style guide and/or the Internet for other options.
WORKS CITED FORMAT
Books by One Author
Morris, Richard. Flowers of North America. New York: Oxford Press, 1972.
Two Authors
Bryant, Donald C. and Earl R Wallace. Oral Communication. New York: Ginn and
Co., 1969.
More than Two Authors
Jones, Lewis et al. An American Melodrama. New York: Viking Press, 1969.
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Editor or Translator
VanDoren, Mark, ed. Poetry of the 60’s. Chicago: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1970.
Encyclopedia Articles Signed
Sapir, Edward. “Communication.” Encyclopedia Of the Social Sciences, 1985. Vol.2,
1993.
Encyclopedia Articles Unsigned
“Ping Pong.” Encyclopedia Americana. 1985, Vol. 8, 342-346.
Magazine Articles Signed
Taves, Isabella. “Lady in a Jet.” Reader’s Digest 67, August 1985, 68-71.
Magazine Articles Unsigned
“Young Man with a Horn.” Time 62, 6 July 1983, 38-39.
Newspaper Articles Signed
Barnard, Ellsworth. “Good Grammar Ain’t Good Usage.” New York Times: 27
January 1977, C3.
Newspaper Article Unsigned
“Forest Fires Spread.” The Times Union. Rochester, New York: 2 November 1983,
C5.
Bulletin
English, Earl. “Medical Problems in Industrial Research.” Bulletin of the New York
School of Industrial and Labor Relations, No. 51. Ithaca, New York: October
1963.
Pamphlet
U.S. Civil Service Commission. The Human Equation: Working in Personnel for the
Federal Government, Pamphlet 276. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing
Office, May 1978.
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Unpublished Paper
Elkins, Samuel R. “The Dream World and the Dream Vision: Meaning and Structure in
Poe’s Fiction.” University of Chicago, 1962.
Lecture
Smith, Charles C. “Thomas Singer.” Lecture Presented at Kansas State Teacher’s
College. Emporia, Kansas, 6 July 1978.
Letter
Copland, Aaron. Letter from the author. 17 May 1982.
Microfiche
Goodwin, Paul. “Not Enough of a World.” 1963 review of Another Country as printed
in Great American Writers, reprinted from The New York Times: Sanford, N.C.:
Microfilming Corp. of America.
Interview
Ray, Bill. Interview. Credit Bureau, Tulsa, Oklahoma. 2 May 1984.
TV or Radio Program
Sevareid, Eric. “Nuclear Proliferation.” Town Meeting of the World, CBS Telecast, 2
May 1986.
Recording
Frost, Robert. “The Road Not Taken.” Robert Frost Reads His Poetry. Caedmon, TC
1060, 1956.
Secondary Source of Quotation
LeGuin, Ursula K. “John Gardner.” reprinted in Contemporary Literary Criticism. ed.
by Sharon R. Gunton. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1981. Vol. 3, 181.
Computer Software
Pattis, Richard E. Connections. New York: Krell Software, 1982.
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Computer Software Reprint
Goulart, Frances. “Coffee Brews Pot of Woe.” printed in Chicago Sun Times, 29
January 1985, reprinted in Drugs, Education Reference Service, Vol. 85.1,
1985.
An Article from an Electronic Encyclopedia
“Jefferson, Thomas.” Encarta. CD-ROM Format.
An Article Reprinted in CD-ROM Format
Miller, Joseph. “Hazing.” US News and World Report. 2 March 1994: SIRS
Researcher. CD-ROM SIRS, March 1997.
An Article from the World Wide Web
Abilock, Debbie. “Research on a Complex Topic.” Nueva Library Help. 8 August
1996. http://www.nueva.pvt.k12.ca.us/-debbie/library/research/advice.html
January 1988).
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Internal Documentation
The purpose of a parenthetical reference is to document a source briefly, clearly, and
accurately so the reader knows where to look on the Works Cited page for more complete
information on the source. To avoid unnecessary clutter in sentences, place the parenthetical
reference at the end of the sentence, but before the final period.
A. Citing a book by one author. There are three ways to do this.
1. Cite the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source in parentheses.
One historian argues that since the invention of television “our politics,
religion, news, athletics, education and commerce have been transformed
into congenial adjuncts of show business, largely without protest or even
much popular notice” (Postman 3-4).
2. When you use the author’s last name in your sentence, place only the page number(s) of
the source in parentheses.
Postman points out that since the invention of television “our politics,
religion, news, athletics, education and commerce have been transformed
into congenial adjuncts of show business, largely without protest or even
much public notice” (3-4).
3. Give the author’s last name in your sentence when you are summarizing the entire work
rather than a specific section or passage, and omit any parenthetical reference.
Postman argues that television has changed virtually every aspect of our
culture into a form of show business.
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B. Citing a book by more than one author.
Two authors:
Boller and Story interpret the Declaration of Independence as Thomas
Jefferson’s attempt to list America’s grievances against England (2:62).
(The 2 in the parenthetical reference refers to the volume number.)
Three or more authors:
Other historians view the Declaration of Independence as Jefferson’s
attempt to formulate the principles of America’s political philosophy
(Norton et al. 141).
(et al. means “and others.”)
C. Citing a work by title when the author is anonymous. Use a one-word title of the
publication in place of the author’s name. The words “a,” “an” and “the” are not counted
as first words.
The recent exhibit of nineteenth-century patent models at the Cooper-Hewitt
Museum featured plans for such inventions as the Rotating Blast-Producing
Chair, an Improved Creeping-Doll, and the Life-Preserving Coffin: In
Doubtful Cases of Actual Death (“Talk” 23).
(“Talk” is shortened from a column titled “Talk of the Town.”)
D. Citing a work when the author is a corporation or government agency. Placing the
title in the sentence is less cumbersome than parentheses at the end, but it can be done
either way.
American Telephone and Telegraph’s Annual Report for 1982 announced that
the corporation had reached a turning point in its history (3).
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E. Citing literary works. Locate the passage you are citing and after the page number, add a
semicolon and other appropriate information, using lowercase abbreviations such as pt.
(part), sec. (section), ch. (chapter).
Although Flaubert sees Madame Bovary for what she is, a silly, romantic
woman, he insists that “none of us can ever express the exact measure of his
needs or his thoughts or his sorrows” and all of us “long to make music that
will melt the stars” (216; pt. 2, ch. 12).
In citing classic verse plays and poems, omit all page numbers and document by division(s) and
line(s), with periods separating the various numbers.
Example: To show a passage from the fourth scene of the third act of Macbeth,
you would use: Mac. 3.4., or if your teacher prefers Roman numerals to Arabic,
Macbeth III.iv.
F. Citing more than one work in a single parenthetical. If you need to include two or
more works in a single parenthetical reference, document each reference according to the
normal pattern, but separate each citation with a semicolon.
(Oleson 59; Trimble 85; Hylton 63)
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of using parts, passages, ideas, or language of an author without
acknowledging the source. Often it is accidental. Be careful to give credit when
needed.
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Questions or notes for your teacher/mentor:
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Grammar and Usage
Answer Key
Section A
Exercise:
1. “If all stories were true, [the] study must have been a very curious place. It was a dim,
old-fashioned chamber, festooned with cobwebs, and besprinkled with antique dust.
Around the walls stood several oaken bookcases, the lower shelves of which were
filled with rows of gigantic folios . . . .”
2. Answers may vary. Student should keep this list of the 5 nouns.
Section B
Exercise
1.
Pronoun
It
which
2.
PP?
Case
PP
N/A
Subjective
N/A
Answers may vary. Student should have substituted the proper nouns with appropriate
pronouns.
Section C
Usage Exercise
Answer will vary.
1.
2.
3.
When you bake a cake, be sure you bake it in a clean place.
Maria asked her sister where Maria’s camera was.
The rules committee has not yet revised the club rules.
Section D
Verb Exercises 1.
Sentence
1. “It was a dim, old fashioned chamber...”
2. “Around the walls stood several….”
2.
V or N
V
V
Tense
past
past
Answers may vary.
Section E
The Parts of Speech: Verbs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Word
remove
houses
arrange
They
will sit
V or N
V
N
V
N
V
Tense
present
present
future
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Past Tense for Verbs
Verb
Past Simple
Past Participle
give
gave
gave
build
built
built
hoe
hoed
hoed
read
read
read
study
studied
studied
Section F
Usage Exercises
Response example: Answers may vary.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Carla had brought the lunch to the field.
Since he was chosen to be on the basketball squad, he has no time for drama club.
Suddenly a snow storm had come up the valley.
They have done a wonderful job of finding sponsors for the race.
He had drunk several colas and had no appetite for lunch.
I don’t think he will have had time to have driven to Sacramento yet.
The squirrels had eaten one newspaper as well as several photos.
I have flown to Albuquerque but never to Phoenix.
Section G
The Parts of Speech: Adjectives
1. “They wore cotton sunbonnets and dresses with long sleeves. A bearded man in a wool
hat drove them.”
2. Answers may vary. Student should have added an adjective to each of the five nouns in
Section A
Section H
Commonly Confused Adjectives
The sentences on fewer and less may vary.
Finish These Comparisons
Answers may vary
1. Most boys enjoy soccer more than tennis.
2. That house is bigger than we can afford.
3. Marcos is a better worker since he returned from school.
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Section I
Adverb Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
Atticus was feeble; he was nearly fifty.”
“He walked erratically….”
“She spoke quietly, contemptuously.”
“Things are always better in the morning.”
Adjective or Adverb
1.
2.
3.
4.
Jem was the fastest runner of the three. ADJ
After school that day, he ran faster than he had ever run. ADV
This had been a slow morning for Scout. ADJ
The hands on the clock were moving so slowly! ADV
Section J
Usage Review
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The children felt bad about not being able to help Tom Robinson.
Calpurnia saw that Scout had hardly eaten a bite of dinner.
“Have you already finished your homework?” Atticus asked his son.
Atticus was a really good marksman.
The dog moved very slowly down the street.
Section K
Preposition Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Scout was already taller than he.
Just between you and me, I think that Calpurnia is doing an excellent job.
Your complaints about her are beside the point.
It was difficult to choose between the two.
“Atticus leaned back in his rocking-chair. For some reason he looked pleased with
Jem.”
Student should write 5 sentences which have at least one prepositional phrase in each
sentence. The prepositional phrase should be circled.
Section L
Conjunction Exercises
1. When you come to a word you don’t know, underline or highlight it. Continue reading
and try to figure out the meaning. When you have finished the story, go back and make a
guess about the meaning.
2. Answers may vary. Students should follow the directions in writing the sentences.
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Section M
Conjunctions versus Prepositions
No Exercises
Section N
Parts of Speech Review
C ART N
V
ADV
ART
N
PREP
N
V
ART
As the Kings watched hopefully, the Negroes of Montgomery continued the
ADJ
N
N
successful bus boycott.
Complete Sentence Exercises
1.
Frederick Douglass learned to read.
2.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. led a bus boycott.
3.
The oration of Chief Seattle became very famous.
4.
(You) Come away from the window.
Section Q
More Complete Sentence Exercises
1.
2.
Miss Emily gave lessons in china-painting when she was about forty.
Miss Emily worked.
The town grew.
Colonel Sartoris lied.
Homer Barron sang.
Section R
Subject and Predicate Exercises
1.
The spring air, full of the smell of growing grass and unseen blossoms, came in their
faces.
2. The spring air, full of the smell of growing grass and unseen blossoms, came in their
faces.
3. Answers will vary.
Response example: Miss Emily, an excellent artist, [worked diligently at painting China.]
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Section S
Parts of a Sentence Exercise: Subject and Predicate
1. Mr. Martin bought a pack of gum on Monday
night.
2.
Mr. Martin’s heart had jumped.
3.
He polished his glasses more often….
Section T
Parts of a Sentence: Subject and Predicate (continued)
1.
He shook his head from side to side.
1.
Willy crossed the room and opened the door.
2.
A bus hit Willy as he was walking home.
3.
Biff gets up at 5:00 a.m. every day.
4.
I see Biff at the library on Saturdays.
Section U
Objective and Subjective Complement
1.
Willie was a salesman.
2.
He carried two large sample cases.
3.
He is exhausted.
4.
He wanted Swiss cheese.
5.
He is the father of Biff and Happy.
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Section V
Correct These Sentences
Response Examples
1.
Happiness is having a good job, good health, and a
loving family
2.
You were late for class because you were up too late.
3.
We go to the super market for dried beans.
Section W
Sentence Review
Type of Sentence
Kind of Sentence
Complex
Declarative
Complex
Declarative
SF
Example
1.
The flooded island disappeared into a
shimmer that looked like glass.
2.
I bounded right onto the ashes of a
campfire that was still smoking.
3.
Oh, my lordy, lordy!
Simple
Interrogative
4.
What’s your real name?
Simple
Declarative
5.
Huck…decided to go to town anyway.
Simple
Imperative
6.
Git up!
Section X
Sentence Fragments
Response Examples
1.
Whenever the repairman comes, I prepare for a big bill.
2.
Dancing along the sidewalk, Joelly charmed the neighbors.
3.
My dog Bingo, chasing the ball, dashed into the street.
4.
After completing the essay, a long one, I was ready for a break.
5.
He had no time to finish.
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Section Y
Sentence Structure
Response Examples
1.
Boys, don’t touch it!
2.
Finish the lawn first, please, Lydia.
3.
Pick up the groceries on your way, John.
1.
You have already finished the assignment.
2.
You did finish the assignment.
Rewrites
Section Z
Sentence Structure (continued)
1.
Since we met he sent me a single flower.
2.
A man dwelt in fair Westmoreland.
1.
I met a man; his name was Pete.
2.
I met a man. His name was Pete.
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Section AA
Writing Complete Sentences (pg. 39)
CS, SF
or RO
SF
Correction of Sentence Fragment or
Run-On
When Abraham Lincoln was elected
president, South Carolina seceded.
Sentence
1. When Abraham Lincoln was elected
president.
2. The wayfarer, perceiving the pathway
to truth, was struck with
astonishment….
CS
RO
He is all pine; I am apple orchard.
3. He is all pine I am apple orchard.
RO
I went to the dances at Chandlerville;
one time we changed partners.
4. I went to the dances at Chandlerville
one time we changed partners.
SF
Miniver Cheevy, child of scorn, loved
all things old.
5. Miniver Cheevy, child of scorn.
6. Reverend Wiley advised me not to
divorce him for the sake of the
children.
CS
SF
With a bobolink for a chorister – and
an orchard, for a dome, I celebrate the
sabbath at home.
CS
SF
7. With a bobolink for a chorister – and
an orchard, for a dome.
8. Do not weep, babe, for war is kind.
A scented gift and remembrancer
designedly dropped were all I had to
remember the dance.
9. A scented gift and remembrancer
designedly dropped.
Section BB
Sentence Review Response Example
It was a dark, gloomy Saturday. It was raining and had been raining for six days. The
trees were dripping. Soccer was cancelled, because the field was mud. Everyone was home
with nothing to do. We were all angry with each other. The younger kids were playing some
game, but they were fighting over it. Then I had an idea.
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Section DD
Punctuation Exercise
Two of the most popular forms of nonfiction are the biography and the autobiography,
which narrate the events of someone’s life. Essays, newspaper articles, journals, diaries,
satires, investigative reporting, sports articles, scientific and technical reports, “how-to”
instructions, interviews, historical accounts, and magazine articles are other forms of
nonfiction. Nonfiction relies on all major forms of discourse: description which gives sensory
information, narration which tells of a series of events, exposition which explains a process or
situation, and persuasion or argument which tries to change the way a reader acts or thinks
about something. They vary greatly in purpose, form, length, intended audience, and tone.
Section EE
Use Appropriate Punctuation in These Sentences
1.
Our entire class will see Death of a Salesman.
2.
“Fire! Fire!” he shouted.
3.
“Finish your homework first,” Mother said.
4.
The next flight is at 2:14.
5.
He can’t go, because he must wait for Carla’s flight.
Section FF
Mechanics Exercise
Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865), born in Kentucky, was self-educated and had various
occupations before studying law. He served in the Illinois state legislature and in Congress
before becoming President. The victory of the Union troops at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on
July 3, 1863, was a turning point of the Civil War. On November 19, 1863, Lincoln visited the
battlefield to dedicate a cemetery for the victims of the battle. The speech was not
immediately recognized for its greatness, but it has come to be considered one of the greatest
American speeches.
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