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Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS IN THE TOPOKE LANGUAGE By LINGOSO Lifengo1 ABSTRACT La formation de mots composés dans une langue est importante en ce qu’elle permet de créer de mots plus concis que les périphrases. Il faut alors appliquer les différents critères qui entrent en ligne de compte. Différentes catégories de mots notamment les noms, les préfixes, les adjectifs, les prépositions et les verbes sont employés pour créer les mots composés. Il a été prouvé la formation des mots composés à partir de nom1 et nom2, adjectifs plus nom, adjectifs composes. Verbe plus un adverbe de lieu ; les verbes composés sont créés de verbes plus le nom, verbe plus un adverbe ; les réduplicatifs sont créés de noms, verbes et adjectifs. Par contre, il a été établi la non existence des noms composés hachés à proprement parler dans la langue Topoke. Ainsi, quelques emprunts sont faits de l’anglais et du français. Part one ꞉ Introduction and methodology INTRODUCTION The choice of this topic is motivated by the author’s need of pointing out ways compound words are made in the Topoke Language. In fact, a number of works have been carried out in other aspects namely phonology and phonetics. Thus, this paper lights up the different elements used in forming compound words within this language. The chief aims of this paper are the following: a) to analyze the devices used in making compound words in the Topoke language; b) to provide researchers with a tool that can be exploited as a reference document for their works, researches 1 Assistant à l’Université de Kisangani 1 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) c) to make a contribution to the theory of universals of language. METHODOLOGY The approaches used in this paper are semantic and morphological. There are, in fact, categories of words used to make compounds, such as verbs, nouns, adverbs, adjectives. Hence, the semantic approach helps to check whether derived words change their meaning or keep it unchanged. The morphological approach is also used to analyze the structures of compound words in order to draw a certain conclusion on the structures of these derived words. The main sources of data for this paper come from a number of grammar books. Some other documents such as dictionaries, courses, theses were consulted as well. The most important of these books are indicated in the bibliography. On the other hand, the native speakers of the Topoke Language are also another source of data. This paper is divided into two main parts besides the general conclusion. The first part is nothing more than the general introduction. The second part is the core of the paper. As a matter of fact, the author presents, within this part, devices used in making compounds, criteria related to the way compounds are written, and the function of compounds. PART TWO: FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS 2.0. Introduction As stated in the general introduction, criteria taken into account when forming compounds and their function are pointed out before tackling the formation of compound words. 2.1. Criteria of compounds in the Topoke Language The criteria that should be observed when forming compounds in this language are orthographic, phonological and semantic. 2.1.1. Orthographic criterion Orthographic criterion is expressed in two different ways in Topoke. A) Solid. E. g. Ifonyafonya 2 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) B) It is worth noting that hyphenation does not exist in Bantu languages and, hence, in Topoke, a Bantu language as well. 2.1.2. Phonological criterion. Ex. Yolo (foot) Yolo (a button which appears on the human skin). θogo ( rat). θogo ( breathing). One can easily notice that in the above words, the tone plays the role of stress in Topoke, a tone language. The tone is placed either in the first syllable or the last one. 2.1.3. Semantic criterion When words appear in isolation they bear a semantic meaning that is different from when they are compound... E.g. Otesa = to brew, to make (tree) bear fruits. Liondo ( bando) =banana(bananas); From this verb and the noun we make a compound: Itesa bando literally means that makes banana tree bear fruits. But the literary meaning is a fertile man. 2.2. Function In the Topoke language four parts of speech are noticeable to make compounds. These parts of speech are the following: noun, adjective, verb and preposition. Apart from these parts of speech, the prefixes and suffixes are also used to make compound words in this language as will be developed in the following part of the paper. 2.3. Compounds in the Topoke Language As has just been said, four parts of speech, prefixes and suffixes play an active role in forming compounds in Topoke as discussed in the following lines. 3 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) 2.3.1. Verb and object compounds Verb + object. Compound word: meaning. Implied (1) Boicesa ngili patient = Charm used to relieve a until the specialist arrives. Boicesa derives from the verb oica which means to make find, to arrive. (2) Itesa bando intercourse. (3)Findja atilo disturb = fertile man (boy), strong in sexual = a spoil spit i.e. someone always eager to public. Findja<ofindja(v)= disturb. Someone who disturbs the joy of other persons. Litilo=net(tool). In the above examples, the second word is actually the object of the verb. 2.3.2. Verbless compounds a. Noun+ noun. Compound word (1) Yololo<yolo+yolo=leg, wood small leg. (2)Ibobogo< yogo +yogo Implied meaning. =a small wood, a =a thin arm, a small quantity of anything that One can easily carry in one’s hand. Phenomena occur when making nouns of this type. First, there is the suppression of the first syllable of the second noun. Then, the transformation of the syllable (yo) into the nominal prefix i(2). This type of formation enables to create diminutives as shown in the examples above. 4 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) Noun+ preposition+ noun Compound word Implied meaning (1)Litanga li boƟwa. fishermen =a very big bag for used season. Litanga=bag Li=of (preposition) BoƟwa=drought catch fish. in the dry a moment when people (2) Isengene I bologi only when =insect appearing the flooding is about to occur. Isengene =insect of flood. I=of(preposition) (3)Liula li getombo It is an insect announcer =literally rat, a thief. The compound means a hypocrite man or a hypocrite woman. As one can note, the second noun has the value of a modifier. In fact, it modifies the first element. It is the second noun that gives a precise meaning to the whole compound. 2.3.3. Adjective compounds 1. Adjective +Noun Compound word 1. Bum (w)a+ boto <bum(w)a=adult and Boto=man. in Implied meaning. Adult ( man or woman) general 2. Bonanga bo boto < bonanga =handsome, beautiful. woman. Handsome man, beautiful The adjective plays its traditional role in these examples. However, not so productive as others, these compounds are the most frequent in the Topoke language. 5 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) 2. Adjective+ Adjective Compound word Igesegese<igese, short +igese woman). Bosabosa<bosa,tall woman), Bolenebolene< bolene=big Implied meaning very short, very old (man, Bosabosa= very tall (man, very tall thing. very big, very fat. In the above compound adjectives: adjective+ adjective are reduplicatives. Since in the Topoke Language any adjective can be doubled to make this category of compounds, it is easy to have this structure. Briefly, we state that this type is a bit productive. 3. Verb+ adverbial Compound word LiɔƟi lisegamé<liɔƟi=heart and Lisegamé<osegama =to be destroyed. Yɔgɔ itinyamé<yɔgɔ = hand and Implied meaning A fearful heart, a heart showing strong fear because of a problem, a dangerous situation, a family responsible is arrested, ill or dead. Yɔgɔ itinyamé means someone whose hand is cut Itinyamé= cut (past participle of otinyama) Otinyama=to be cut. The above examples show that this kind of adjectives is made up of a noun and a past participle undergoing the action. These adjectives express an already undergone situation. 2.3.4. Compounds from verbs 1. Verb+ Noun Compound word Implied meaning Gotigato<ogota(v)=to enter +gato(n)=forest . The amount of money given to a magic maker-before he treats his patient Iloa bakpa<iloa from oloa(v)= to kill, Iloa bakpa is a person eager to create conflict to 6 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) and bakpa(n) plural of okpa=friendship. conflict destroy,to create between persons, persons. It between is asportsperson. Ileta lola<ileta from the verb oleta=to look at, person, and lola=sky. Ileta lola is any tall any high and straight tree. In the above examples the noun is an object. It may also be considered as an adverbial playing the role of an object. 2. Verb+ adverbial Compound word Oenda mwilo Ota sai la loha Ohomba mbele Implied meaning to walk around while one is asleep. to dream at daytime, to daydream. to clean the room, the house. These expressions are made from the combination of the verbs and nouns of places which play the role of direct object. 2.3.5. Reduplicatives 1. Noun. e.g. (a)ƟogoƟogo=pride, anger. (b)kpɔlokpɔlo=imitating the sound of two things which bang each other. (c)bogobogo=gossip, chattering. (d)kpeekpee=imitating the sound of a tree being cut. (e)haha=laughter. The above examples are reduplicatives imitating a sound that expresses a state of being. In fact, the examples a, c, d express pride, anger, chattering while the examples b and e express respectively sounds imitating something and laughter. 2. Verbs. e.g. (a) Otinya= to cut. 7 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) Otinyatinya<otinya= to cut in small parts because of anger. (b) Olela= to cry. Olelalela<olela= to cry without reason. (c) Ometa= to stamp one’s feet. Ometameta<ometa= to break or destroy something using one’s feet because of anger or by inadvertence. (d) Olila= to climb (e) Olilalila < olila= to climb a lot of trees and for a long time. In the Topoke language, a verb is doubled and used as a reduplicative either with meanings in the examples a, b, c or in order to express a repeated or lasting action like in the examples d, and e. As can be remarked in the above examples, the kernel-word is repeated but remains unchanged. By contrast, there is no alternation of vowel or vowel alternation, but the phenomenon exists in the Topoke language. 3. Adverbs (a) Nɔngɔ =morning. -Nɔngɔnɔngɔ < nɔngɔ =very early in the morning. -Lotigo=night. -Lotigolotigo from lotigo means very early at night -Liɔlɔ=evening. -Liɔlɔliɔlɔ derives from liɔlɔ and means very early in the evening. (b) Lɔlɔ< well -Lɔlɔlɔlɔ =very well -Bonanga=correct, good. -Bonanga bonanga< bonanga= verycorrectly. (c)-Loselose< lose=near the ground, of the low altitude. -Loselose= very near the ground. (d)-Tinaina<tina= near. -Tinaina =very near The adverb of time (a), of manner (b), of place(c) are doubled in order to express intensity. The adverb of place Tina is doubled but with the suppression of the initial “t’’. This suppression is motivated by the desire to be 8 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) supple or quick while speaking. In fact, tinatina is heavier than tinaina. 4. Adjectives e.g.(a) Ikeike<ike=small. Ikeike=very small, very few. (b) Bolenebolene<big Bolenebolene=very big (c) Igesegese<Igese=old, hard(tree, substance), Igesegese=a very hard tree, a very hard substance. (d) Iny u<iny u=small (quantity). Iny uny u= very small quantity. Once more, in order to render some reduplicatives supple some initials are suppressed in (c) and (d) examples. It is clearly noticed that a few adjectives are doubled to make diminutives or augmentatives in the Topoke language. In the example(c) the adjective is doubled to make a diminutive with a pejorative meaning. 2.3.6. String compounds String compounds are made up of noun plus preposition plus noun . E.g. Geoma gé ndolé=arrogant. GeƟɔnyɛlo gé BoƟuluƟulu= a dangerous place Iɛsu I kɔi=a threatening situation. Liula li getombo=a robber, a pickpocket. In the Topoke language, string compounds have one characteristic expressed as follows: the first element consists of substantive+ preposition+ regimen (substance). 2.3.7. Clipped compounds E.g. Takisé from taxi. Ekisamè from examen. Ɵɔtɔ from photo. Ɵiliko from frigo= frigerator. The examples above show sufficiently that there do not exist properly speaking clipped compounds in the Topoke language. Some of clipped compounds used within this language are borrowed from English. However, these loan words have undergone the influence of 9 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) the Topoke language. As a matter of fact, spellings of clipped compounds in the Topoke language are morphologically quite different from those of English language. In the Topoke language, the shortening occurs only at the end of words, but never occurs at the beginning and the end of words at the same time in this language. The only one case where the shortening occurs at the beginning is the loan word bisi from bus to mean the same thing. In fact, the whole word in English and French is autobus. 2.3.8. Compounds with prefixes There are a few prefixes used in making compounds in the Topoke language. These prefixes are joined to the verbs to form compound nouns. 1. Negative prefixes. E.g.- Atilɛ baƟoya= someone who always eats meat but not cassava leaves, that is, a carnivore. - AtiƟulé means someone suffering from hydrophobias. - Atimwɛ baye means a person who drinks too much alcohol, wine, beer; a drunkard man or woman. - Acoésé means a stubborn (tetu), a deaf person. The Topoke language uses only two prefixes ‘‘ati-‘’ and “aco/aci-“ added to verbs to form compounds with a negative meaning. 2. Reversative or privative prefixes There do not exist reversative or privative prefixes in the Topoke language since people use the opposite verbs to mean “to reverse from, release from, etc.” E.g. obunda < > otasé (=to arrest< >to liberate) Oindja< >oliƟola(to shut< >to open) 1. Pejorative prefixes E.g. IƟondandolé means a lazy boy/girl/man/woman. Inya tuu means a lazy boy/girl/man/woman. Ilaa tuu means an idiot, poor man/woman. Ikpakpasé signifies a thin man/woman, a midget 10 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) The prefix I- is added to verbs to make pejoratives. It is important to note that this is the only one prefix used to make pejorative words in the Topoke language. The plural is to. 5. Prefixes of degree or size, attitude E.g. ndolé ye see mbuu= subway. Sipe kèkèe=mini-skirt. These prefixes do not exist in the Topoke language. Hence, they proceed by periphrases; they use adjectives to mean ‘’up” over-, mini-,sub-, etc. This observation is also made about prefixes of size or degrees. E.g. oa mango oéta boto botubu means to outrun. Ola oéta oeta gelɛlo= to overeat, etc. 6. Locative prefixes a. Ɵelo= fore-, beforeE.g. Ɵelo mbɛle= fore part of a house, front compound b. Mbisa=after-, backE.g. mbisambɛle= the backside of a house, compound. c.Tie-=upper-,up-, E.g. Tieloye= the upper part of shore(amont). d. Se=under-, sub-, E.g. Seisandu=under a tree; Sembɛle=under the roof. These prefixes are added to nouns to form compound nouns indicating places. 7. Prefixes of time and order. Ɵelomili=before noon. Ɵelogimo= pre-war. Mbis’egimo=after-war The above prefixes: θelo(fore-),mbisa/mbisa(after) are added to nouns to make compound nouns indicating time. The senses of the nouns take an active part in specifying whether it is a locative or time expression. E.g.(1). Otoba mbala yaina= reboxe. (2). Embɛndé ga baelé= he/she the second (of the class). 11 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) (3).Mombaa Ɵelesita= the former president. There do not exist properly speaking prefixes of order in the Topoke. But to express order or indicate it, a Topoke speaker makes use of whole sentences (1). He also uses expressions such as: gaƟelo= the first, former, ex. gabaelé= the second, etc.(2), and mombaa= the former. 2.3.9. Number prefixes E.g. Bosélengi baogi baélé= bilingual Moenda la baolo baélé=bicycle. Mongala la yɔgɔ ′imoa= having one arm. Once more, the number prefixes like those of order, attitude do not exist in the Topoke language. Instead, they use some verbs or adjectives and cardinals: omoa(omoo)=one,uni-, baélé=two, di-,bi-; basaso (baseso)=three, triGENERAL CONCLUSION Forming is essential in a language because it helps to create concise words than the usual periphrases. To do this, some criteria need to be followed and observed in any language. As matter of fact, orthographic, phonological and semantic criteria dictate the formation of compounds. As far as function is concerned, noun, prefixes, adjectives, prepositions and verbs are used to form compounds. Hence, compounds are formed from verb and object compounds, verb and adverbial compounds, adjectives, verbs compounds with prefixes. Has been evidenced that verbless compounds are made from noun plus noun, noun1plus noun2, adjective plus noun; adjective compounds are created from noun plus adjective, adjective plus adjective, verb plus adverbial; verb compounds are formed from verb plus noun, verb plus adverbial; reduplicative are created from nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives, etc. There has been noted also that there do not exist properly speaking clipped compounds in the Topoke Language. Thus, some words are borrowed from English and French to compensate this lack. Likewise, number prefixes lack in the Topoke Language. Instead, some verbs or adjectives and cardinals are used. 12 Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014) BIBLIOGRAPHY Baruti, M.’’ Essai de Phonologie et de Phonétique de la Langue Topoke’’T.F.C. inédit, 1997. Bokula, M., Etude théorique d’une langue Bantoue’’, Cours, inédit, 2003. Bokula, M., Langues, Langage et Sociétés au Congo, 2004. Eckersley, C.E. Essential English for Foreign Students (I). London ꞉ Longman, 1979. Guthrie, M. The Classification of Bantu Languages. London ꞉I.A.I., O.U.P., 1966. Hartmann, R.R.K., and Storke. Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London ꞉Applied Science Publishers,1973. Horn by, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,6th edition. New York ꞉University Press, 2000. Jespersen, O. Growth and Structure of English Language. London ꞉ Drayton House, 1954. Jespersen, O. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Part VI. London ꞉ Drayton House, 1954. Kruisinga, E. A Handbook of Present-day English, English Accidence and Syntax, Part II, 5thedition. London꞉ Applied Science Publishers, 1931. Leech, G. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London꞉ Longman , 1980. Warriner, J. E. English Composition and Grammar. Chicago꞉ BENCHMARK EDITION, 1985. 13