Download formation of compound words in the topoke language

Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS IN THE TOPOKE
LANGUAGE
By
LINGOSO Lifengo1
ABSTRACT
La formation de mots composés dans une langue est
importante en ce qu’elle permet de créer de mots plus concis que les
périphrases. Il faut alors appliquer les différents critères qui entrent
en ligne de compte.
Différentes catégories de mots notamment les noms, les
préfixes, les adjectifs, les prépositions et les verbes sont employés
pour créer les mots composés.
Il a été prouvé la formation des mots composés à partir de
nom1 et nom2, adjectifs plus nom, adjectifs composes. Verbe plus
un adverbe de lieu ; les verbes composés sont créés de verbes plus le
nom, verbe plus un adverbe ; les réduplicatifs sont créés de noms,
verbes et adjectifs.
Par contre, il a été établi la non existence des noms composés
hachés à proprement parler dans la langue Topoke. Ainsi, quelques
emprunts sont faits de l’anglais et du français.
Part one ꞉ Introduction and methodology
INTRODUCTION
The choice of this topic is motivated by the author’s need of
pointing out ways compound words are made in the Topoke
Language. In fact, a number of works have been carried out in other
aspects namely phonology and phonetics. Thus, this paper lights up
the different elements used in forming compound words within this
language.
The chief aims of this paper are the following:
a) to analyze the devices used in making compound words in the
Topoke language;
b) to provide researchers with a tool that can be exploited as a
reference document for their works, researches
1
Assistant à l’Université de Kisangani
1
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
c) to make a contribution to the theory of universals of language.
METHODOLOGY
The approaches used in this paper are semantic and
morphological.
There are, in fact, categories of words used to make
compounds, such as verbs, nouns, adverbs, adjectives. Hence, the
semantic approach helps to check whether derived words change
their meaning or keep it unchanged. The morphological approach is
also used to analyze the structures of compound words in order to
draw a certain conclusion on the structures of these derived words.
The main sources of data for this paper come from a number of
grammar books. Some other documents such as dictionaries, courses,
theses were consulted as well. The most important of these books
are indicated in the bibliography. On the other hand, the native
speakers of the Topoke Language are also another source of data.
This paper is divided into two main parts besides the general
conclusion. The first part is nothing more than the general
introduction. The second part is the core of the paper. As a matter of
fact, the author presents, within this part, devices used in making
compounds, criteria related to the way compounds are written, and
the function of compounds.
PART TWO: FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS
2.0. Introduction
As stated in the general introduction, criteria taken into
account when forming compounds and their function are pointed out
before tackling the formation of compound words.
2.1. Criteria of compounds in the Topoke Language
The criteria that should be observed when forming compounds
in this language are orthographic, phonological and semantic.
2.1.1. Orthographic criterion
Orthographic criterion is expressed in two different ways in
Topoke.
A) Solid. E. g. Ifonyafonya
2
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
B) It is worth noting that hyphenation does not exist in Bantu
languages and, hence, in Topoke, a Bantu language as well.
2.1.2. Phonological criterion.
Ex. Yolo (foot)
Yolo (a button which appears on the human skin).
θogo ( rat).
θogo ( breathing).
One can easily notice that in the above words, the tone plays
the role of stress in Topoke, a tone language. The tone is placed
either in the first syllable or the last one.
2.1.3. Semantic criterion
When words appear in isolation they bear a semantic
meaning that is different from when they are compound...
E.g. Otesa = to brew, to make (tree) bear fruits.
Liondo ( bando) =banana(bananas);
From this verb and the noun we make a compound:
Itesa bando literally means that makes banana tree bear fruits.
But the literary meaning is a fertile man.
2.2. Function
In the Topoke language four parts of speech are noticeable to
make compounds. These parts of speech are the following: noun,
adjective, verb and preposition. Apart from these parts of speech, the
prefixes and suffixes are also used to make compound words in this
language as will be developed in the following part of the paper.
2.3. Compounds in the Topoke Language
As has just been said, four parts of speech, prefixes and
suffixes play an active role in forming compounds in Topoke as
discussed in the following lines.
3
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
2.3.1. Verb and object compounds
Verb + object.
Compound word:
meaning.
Implied
(1) Boicesa ngili
patient
= Charm used to relieve a
until the specialist
arrives.
Boicesa derives from the verb oica which
means to make find, to arrive.
(2) Itesa bando
intercourse.
(3)Findja atilo
disturb
= fertile man (boy), strong in sexual
= a spoil spit i.e. someone always eager to
public.
Findja<ofindja(v)= disturb. Someone who disturbs the joy of other
persons.
Litilo=net(tool).
In the above examples, the second word is actually the object
of the verb.
2.3.2. Verbless compounds
a. Noun+ noun.
Compound word
(1) Yololo<yolo+yolo=leg, wood
small leg.
(2)Ibobogo< yogo +yogo
Implied meaning.
=a small wood, a
=a thin arm, a small
quantity of
anything that
One can easily carry in
one’s
hand.
Phenomena occur when making nouns of this type. First, there
is the suppression of the first syllable of the second noun. Then, the
transformation of the syllable (yo) into the nominal prefix i(2).
This type of formation enables to create diminutives as shown
in the examples above.
4
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
Noun+ preposition+ noun
Compound word
Implied meaning
(1)Litanga li boƟwa.
fishermen
=a very big bag for
used
season.
Litanga=bag
Li=of (preposition)
BoƟwa=drought
catch fish.
in
the
dry
a moment when people
(2) Isengene I bologi
only when
=insect appearing
the flooding is about to
occur.
Isengene =insect
of flood.
I=of(preposition)
(3)Liula li getombo
It is an insect announcer
=literally rat, a thief.
The compound means a
hypocrite
man
or
a
hypocrite
woman.
As one can note, the second noun has the value of a modifier.
In fact, it modifies the first element. It is the second noun that gives a
precise meaning to the whole compound.
2.3.3. Adjective compounds
1. Adjective +Noun
Compound word
1. Bum (w)a+ boto <bum(w)a=adult and
Boto=man.
in
Implied meaning.
Adult ( man or woman)
general
2. Bonanga bo boto < bonanga
=handsome, beautiful.
woman.
Handsome man, beautiful
The adjective plays its traditional role in these examples.
However, not so productive as others, these compounds are the most
frequent in the Topoke language.
5
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
2. Adjective+ Adjective
Compound word
Igesegese<igese, short +igese
woman).
Bosabosa<bosa,tall
woman),
Bolenebolene< bolene=big
Implied meaning
very short, very old (man,
Bosabosa= very tall (man,
very tall thing.
very big, very fat.
In the above compound adjectives: adjective+ adjective are
reduplicatives. Since in the Topoke Language any adjective can be
doubled to make this category of compounds, it is easy to have this
structure. Briefly, we state that this type is a bit productive.
3. Verb+ adverbial
Compound word
LiɔƟi lisegamé<liɔƟi=heart and
Lisegamé<osegama
=to be destroyed.
Yɔgɔ itinyamé<yɔgɔ = hand and
Implied meaning
A fearful heart, a
heart showing strong
fear
because of a problem,
a dangerous situation,
a family responsible
is arrested, ill or
dead.
Yɔgɔ itinyamé means
someone whose hand
is cut
Itinyamé= cut (past participle of otinyama)
Otinyama=to be cut.
The above examples show that this kind of adjectives is made
up of a noun and a past participle undergoing the action. These
adjectives express an already undergone situation.
2.3.4. Compounds from verbs
1. Verb+ Noun
Compound word
Implied
meaning
Gotigato<ogota(v)=to enter +gato(n)=forest .
The amount of
money
given to a magic
maker-before
he treats his patient
Iloa bakpa<iloa from oloa(v)= to kill,
Iloa bakpa is a
person eager
to create conflict to
6
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
and bakpa(n) plural of okpa=friendship.
conflict
destroy,to
create
between
persons,
persons.
It
between
is
asportsperson.
Ileta lola<ileta from the verb oleta=to look at,
person,
and lola=sky.
Ileta lola is any tall
any high and
straight tree.
In the above examples the noun is an object. It may also be
considered as an adverbial playing the role of an object.
2. Verb+ adverbial
Compound word
Oenda mwilo
Ota sai la loha
Ohomba mbele
Implied meaning
to walk around
while one is
asleep.
to dream at
daytime, to
daydream.
to clean the room,
the house.
These expressions are made from the combination of the verbs
and nouns of places which play the role of direct object.
2.3.5. Reduplicatives
1. Noun.
e.g. (a)ƟogoƟogo=pride, anger.
(b)kpɔlokpɔlo=imitating the sound of two things which
bang
each other.
(c)bogobogo=gossip, chattering.
(d)kpeekpee=imitating the sound of a tree being cut.
(e)haha=laughter.
The above examples are reduplicatives imitating a sound that
expresses a state of being. In fact, the examples a, c, d express pride,
anger, chattering while the examples b and e express respectively
sounds imitating something and laughter.
2. Verbs.
e.g. (a) Otinya= to cut.
7
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
Otinyatinya<otinya= to cut in small parts because of
anger.
(b) Olela= to cry.
Olelalela<olela= to cry without reason.
(c) Ometa= to stamp one’s feet.
Ometameta<ometa= to break or destroy something
using
one’s feet because of anger or by inadvertence.
(d) Olila= to climb
(e) Olilalila < olila= to climb a lot of trees and for a long
time.
In the Topoke language, a verb is doubled and used as a
reduplicative either with meanings in the examples a, b, c or in order
to express a repeated or lasting action like in the examples d, and e.
As can be remarked in the above examples, the kernel-word is
repeated but remains unchanged. By contrast, there is no alternation
of vowel or vowel alternation, but the phenomenon exists in the
Topoke language.
3. Adverbs
(a) Nɔngɔ =morning.
-Nɔngɔnɔngɔ < nɔngɔ =very early in the morning.
-Lotigo=night.
-Lotigolotigo from lotigo means very early at night
-Liɔlɔ=evening.
-Liɔlɔliɔlɔ derives from liɔlɔ and means very early in the
evening.
(b) Lɔlɔ< well
-Lɔlɔlɔlɔ =very well
-Bonanga=correct, good.
-Bonanga bonanga< bonanga= verycorrectly.
(c)-Loselose< lose=near the ground, of the low altitude.
-Loselose= very near the ground.
(d)-Tinaina<tina= near.
-Tinaina =very near
The adverb of time (a), of manner (b), of place(c) are doubled
in order to express intensity.
The adverb of place Tina is doubled but with the suppression
of the initial “t’’. This suppression is motivated by the desire to be
8
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
supple or quick while speaking. In fact, tinatina is heavier than
tinaina.
4. Adjectives
e.g.(a) Ikeike<ike=small.
Ikeike=very small, very few.
(b) Bolenebolene<big
Bolenebolene=very big
(c) Igesegese<Igese=old, hard(tree, substance),
Igesegese=a very hard tree, a very hard substance.
(d) Iny u<iny u=small (quantity).
Iny uny u= very small quantity.
Once more, in order to render some reduplicatives supple some
initials are suppressed in (c) and (d) examples.
It is clearly noticed that a few adjectives are doubled to make
diminutives or augmentatives in the Topoke language.
In the example(c) the adjective is doubled to make a
diminutive with a pejorative meaning.
2.3.6. String compounds
String compounds are made up of noun plus preposition plus
noun .
E.g. Geoma gé ndolé=arrogant.
GeƟɔnyɛlo gé BoƟuluƟulu= a dangerous place
Iɛsu I kɔi=a threatening situation.
Liula li getombo=a robber, a pickpocket.
In the Topoke language, string compounds have one
characteristic expressed as follows: the first element consists of
substantive+ preposition+ regimen (substance).
2.3.7. Clipped compounds
E.g. Takisé from taxi.
Ekisamè from examen.
Ɵɔtɔ from photo.
Ɵiliko from frigo= frigerator.
The examples above show sufficiently that there do not exist
properly speaking clipped compounds in the Topoke language. Some
of clipped compounds used within this language are borrowed from
English. However, these loan words have undergone the influence of
9
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
the Topoke language. As a matter of fact, spellings of clipped
compounds in the Topoke language are morphologically quite
different from those of English language.
In the Topoke language, the shortening occurs only at the end
of words, but never occurs at the beginning and the end of words at
the same time in this language.
The only one case where the shortening occurs at the
beginning is the loan word bisi from bus to mean the same thing. In
fact, the whole word in English and French is autobus.
2.3.8. Compounds with prefixes
There are a few prefixes used in making compounds in the
Topoke language. These prefixes are joined to the verbs to form
compound nouns.
1. Negative prefixes.
E.g.- Atilɛ baƟoya= someone who always eats meat but not
cassava leaves, that is, a carnivore.
- AtiƟulé means someone suffering from hydrophobias.
- Atimwɛ baye means a person who drinks too much alcohol,
wine,
beer; a drunkard man or woman.
- Acoésé means a stubborn (tetu), a deaf person.
The Topoke language uses only two prefixes ‘‘ati-‘’ and “aco/aci-“ added to verbs to form compounds with a negative meaning.
2. Reversative or privative prefixes
There do not exist reversative or privative prefixes in the
Topoke language since people use the opposite verbs to mean “to
reverse from, release from, etc.”
E.g. obunda < > otasé (=to arrest< >to liberate)
Oindja< >oliƟola(to shut< >to open)
1. Pejorative prefixes
E.g. IƟondandolé means a lazy boy/girl/man/woman.
Inya tuu means a lazy boy/girl/man/woman.
Ilaa tuu means an idiot, poor man/woman.
Ikpakpasé signifies a thin man/woman, a midget
10
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
The prefix I- is added to verbs to make pejoratives. It is
important to note that this is the only one prefix used to make
pejorative words in the Topoke language. The plural is to.
5. Prefixes of degree or size, attitude
E.g. ndolé ye see mbuu= subway.
Sipe kèkèe=mini-skirt.
These prefixes do not exist in the Topoke language. Hence,
they proceed by periphrases; they use adjectives to mean ‘’up” over-,
mini-,sub-, etc.
This observation is also made about prefixes of size or degrees.
E.g. oa mango oéta boto botubu means to outrun.
Ola oéta oeta gelɛlo= to overeat, etc.
6. Locative prefixes
a. Ɵelo= fore-, beforeE.g. Ɵelo mbɛle= fore part of a house, front compound
b. Mbisa=after-, backE.g. mbisambɛle= the backside of a house, compound.
c.Tie-=upper-,up-,
E.g. Tieloye= the upper part of shore(amont).
d. Se=under-, sub-,
E.g. Seisandu=under a tree; Sembɛle=under the roof.
These prefixes are added to nouns to form compound nouns
indicating places.
7. Prefixes of time and order.
Ɵelomili=before noon.
Ɵelogimo= pre-war.
Mbis’egimo=after-war
The above prefixes: θelo(fore-),mbisa/mbisa(after) are added
to nouns to make compound nouns indicating time.
The senses of the nouns take an active part in specifying
whether it is a locative or time expression.
E.g.(1). Otoba mbala yaina= reboxe.
(2). Embɛndé ga baelé= he/she the second (of the class).
11
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
(3).Mombaa Ɵelesita= the former president.
There do not exist properly speaking prefixes of order in the
Topoke. But to express order or indicate it, a Topoke speaker makes
use of whole sentences (1). He also uses expressions such as:
gaƟelo= the first, former, ex. gabaelé= the second, etc.(2), and
mombaa= the former.
2.3.9. Number prefixes
E.g. Bosélengi baogi baélé= bilingual
Moenda la baolo baélé=bicycle.
Mongala la yɔgɔ ′imoa= having one arm.
Once more, the number prefixes like those of order, attitude do
not exist in the Topoke language. Instead, they use some verbs or
adjectives and cardinals: omoa(omoo)=one,uni-, baélé=two, di-,bi-;
basaso (baseso)=three, triGENERAL CONCLUSION
Forming is essential in a language because it helps to create
concise words than the usual periphrases. To do this, some criteria
need to be followed and observed in any language. As matter of fact,
orthographic, phonological and semantic criteria dictate the
formation of compounds.
As far as function is concerned, noun, prefixes, adjectives,
prepositions and verbs are used to form compounds. Hence,
compounds are formed from verb and object compounds, verb and
adverbial compounds, adjectives, verbs compounds with prefixes.
Has been evidenced that verbless compounds are made from
noun plus noun, noun1plus noun2, adjective plus noun; adjective
compounds are created from noun plus adjective, adjective plus
adjective, verb plus adverbial; verb compounds are formed from
verb plus noun, verb plus adverbial; reduplicative are created from
nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives, etc.
There has been noted also that there do not exist properly
speaking clipped compounds in the Topoke Language. Thus, some
words are borrowed from English and French to compensate this
lack. Likewise, number prefixes lack in the Topoke Language.
Instead, some verbs or adjectives and cardinals are used.
12
Annales FLSH N° 18 (2014)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baruti, M.’’ Essai de Phonologie et de Phonétique de la Langue
Topoke’’T.F.C. inédit, 1997.
Bokula, M., Etude théorique d’une langue Bantoue’’, Cours, inédit, 2003.
Bokula, M., Langues, Langage et Sociétés au Congo, 2004.
Eckersley, C.E. Essential English for Foreign Students (I). London ꞉
Longman, 1979.
Guthrie, M. The Classification of Bantu Languages. London ꞉I.A.I.,
O.U.P., 1966.
Hartmann, R.R.K., and Storke. Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.
London ꞉Applied Science Publishers,1973.
Horn by, A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary,6th edition. New
York ꞉University Press, 2000.
Jespersen, O. Growth and Structure of English Language. London ꞉
Drayton House, 1954.
Jespersen, O. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Part
VI. London ꞉ Drayton House, 1954.
Kruisinga, E. A Handbook of Present-day English, English Accidence
and Syntax, Part II, 5thedition. London꞉ Applied Science
Publishers, 1931.
Leech, G. A Grammar of Contemporary English. London꞉ Longman ,
1980.
Warriner, J. E. English Composition and Grammar. Chicago꞉
BENCHMARK EDITION, 1985.
13