Download Rome had many clever and determined generals, but none has

Julius Caesar Obituary
Rome had many clever and determined generals, but none has seized the modern imagination as firmly as Julius Caesar.
In less than 10 years (59-50 BCE), he conquered what is today France, Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland with a relatively
modest army. In the process, he subdued hundreds of Gallic tribes and cities and made them part of the Roman Empire.
He was also the first Roman general to land in Britain and to cross the Rhine River into Germany. The unity felt today
between the countries of Western Europe derives ultimately from Caesar's amazing conquests and the subsequent
expansion of Roman civilization there.
How Caesar came to accomplish all this is an interesting story--especially since he had no authority under Roman law to
make any conquests at all. Better known is the story of Caesar's return to Rome, the civil war he waged against his
opponents there, and his eventual assassination by a group of disgruntled former friends and supporters. Yet Caesar
was more than a remarkable general and ill-fated dictator. He was one of the best speakers of his day and the author of
accounts of his own military campaigns that are so well-written that they are still admired today for their vigorous style.
Caesar grew up in a troubled century, when the Senate was finding it increasingly difficult to keep the peace. Senate
members had to cope with threats from the likes of Catiline, Spartacus, pirates, and mobs rioting in the streets of Rome,
and, at the same time, attend to such basic matters as ensuring sufficient food for the urban population. The most
difficult task, however, was preserving the Senate's control in the face of such extremely popular and successful generals
as Marius and Pompey. The more that senators granted special powers to individuals to deal with particular crises, the
more senators had to fear from these individuals later.
In 60 BCE, three of those powerful men pooled their interests. The actions they took spelled the beginning of the end for
the Republic and the traditional authority and supremacy of the Senate. One was the victorious general Pompey; the
second was Crassus, probably the richest man in Rome; the third, and youngest, was Julius Caesar, who had recently
returned from a tour as governor of Spain and wanted to become consul. Their informal alliance is known as the First
Triumvirate. Through the combined influence of the three, Caesar was elected consul for 59 BCE and was granted Gaul
as the province he would govern in the year following his consulship. Certain senators bitterly opposed this turn of
events as they were suspicious of Caesar's legislation in favor of the common people. They thought Caesar wanted to
make himself king.
As a general, Caesar inspired incredible bravery and endurance in his men. Caesar bore the army's physical hardships
along with his men. In addition, he often fought hand-to-hand at great risk to himself. He showed little favoritism and
lavishly rewarded the quality that the soldiers admired most-- bravery. This was the secret of his success. On his way
back to Rome, Caesar traveled to Asia Minor to put down a revolt led by King Pharnaces of Pontus. His efforts proved
successful, and the campaign’s quick end led Caesar to summarize it in three words: Veni, vidi, vici! (“I came, I saw, I
conquered!”). After the Gallic campaigns, Caesar crossed the boundary of his province and entered Italy with his army.
Technically, this made him a hostile invader of his own country. Caesar considered this drastic measure his only option.
His enemies in the Senate had promised to prosecute him as a criminal if he returned as a private citizen. When Caesar
crossed the border at a small river called the Rubicon, he is said to have remarked, “Let the die be cast.” At that
moment, the Republic took another step toward extinction.
Many then expected Caesar to sweep into Italy and have his opponents killed, just as Sulla had done a generation
earlier. Instead, Caesar surprised everybody by letting them go, a wise decision that won him many friends and
supporters. Ultimately, he had himself made dictator for life and set about trying to solve some of the problems facing
the Roman government. His assassination in 44 BCE was the result of his own arrogance and the Roman dislike of
dictator-like power.
In March 44 BCE, Caesar was preparing to leave the city of Rome to go to war with Parthia, in present-day Iraq. The Ides
of March (as March 15 was called in the Roman calendar) was to be Caesar’s last visit to the Senate before he left Rome.
A fortuneteller was rumored to have warned him to “beware of the Ides of March.” However, Caesar left his house
unguarded. His wife, Calpurnia, fearing for his well-being, almost persuaded him to stay at home that morning, but an
early visit from one of his fellow senators, Marcus Junius Brutus, changed his mind.
Caesar entered the temporary home of the Senate, the portico of the Theatre of Pompey. A group of conspirators, who
called themselves the Liberators, were waiting for Caesar, having arrived early at the Senate, daggers concealed in the
tubes that normally held their writing styluses. Caesar seated himself in his usual place, a golden chair. The conspirators
surrounded Caesar with requests and questions. At an agreed-upon signal, they attacked Caesar, stabbing him twentythree times. Mark Antony had heard of the conspiracy and intended to warn Caesar but was detained outside the
Senate. Several of the conspirators were stabbed in the chaos that followed as Caesar staggered from his seat. He died
at the foot of the great statue of Pompey. Caesar’s last words, “You, too, my son?” spoke of his betrayal, according to
the second-century Roman historian Suetonius. This phrase would more famously be remembered as “Et tu, Brute?”
(“And you, Brutus?”), as written by English playwright William Shakespeare in his play entitled, Julius Caesar. Most of the
Senate fled to their homes, and Caesar’s body was returned to his home by his slaves. The conspirators walked to the
capitol, carrying a pole with a freedman’s cap, a cone-shaped cap associated with emancipated slaves, to symbolize that
Caesar’s death had freed the Roman people. The crowd at the capitol did not show their support for the conspirators.
Sixty senators of the nine hundred in the Senate joined in the plot to assassinate the fifty-six-year-old Caesar. Two men
led the conspiracy: Brutus and Cassius. Brutus was the son of one of Caesar’s female companions, Servilia, and the two
men had once been close. Cassius was Brutus’ brother-in-law. Many of the other conspirators had once been supportive
of Caesar, siding with him during the civil war. Some were even his close associates and advisers. Although each member
of the conspiracy had his own motives, the group was united by a desire to preserve the Roman Republic and the values
for which it stood. They sought to eliminate the dictator and return Rome to its republican roots. Although the
assassination of Caesar was essential, the group agreed, at Brutus’ urging, to kill no one else, including Caesar’s close ally
and supporter, Mark Antony.
The day after the assassination, the Senate passed a motion to recognize and acknowledge Caesar’s acts and
appointments. He was granted a public funeral with full honors. The Senate also pardoned the conspirators, working to
create a compromise that would satisfy all sides. At Caesar’s funeral, Mark Antony spoke, reading a list of the honors
granted to Caesar by the Senate, the oath taken by the Senate to preserve Mark Antony’s life, and reading Caesar’s will
to the crowd. The crowds attending Caesar’s funeral demanded his cremation in the Senate itself. Benches and seats
were broken to feed his funeral pyre. The people of Rome rioted and attacked the conspirators’ homes in the days and
weeks following the funeral. Although the conspirators sought to restore the republic, they misjudged the response of
the people and the strength of Caesar’s allies.
Many cheered the deed, but, strangely, the conspirators had no plan for what to do next. The result was more civil war,
the last spasm that finally ended the desire to keep the old, broken Republican institutions. Peace arrived some 13 years
after Caesar's death with the rise of Octavian, Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor. Octavian set the Roman state back
on its feet in a rather different form. In 27 BCE, the Roman Senate granted Octavian the honorary title Augustus, a term
with religious significance. It suggested that Octavian should be considered as ranking above all other human beings.
History books usually refer to Octavian as Augustus. The Senate's role was greatly diminished, and his authority as
emperor granted him absolute power.
Adapted from:
"The Assassination of Julius Caesar: 44 bce." Global Events: Milestone Events Throughout History. Vol. 4: Europe. Detroit: Gale, 2013. Student Resources in Context.
Web. 14 Dec. 2013.
Francese, Christopher. “The Republic Falls.” Callipe, October 2002.
Hussein, Angela Murok. “World Conqueror.” Calliope, December 2006.