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The Sentence
Sentences are used in all languages. Sentences are used in both speech and writing. You are learning
about writing in English. When we talk about the sentence in this class, we are talking about the written
English sentence. We are not talking about sentences in other languages. We are not talking about
spoken sentences.
A. What is a sentence?
A written English sentence is a group of words with four characteristics:
1. All sentences begin with a capital letter: A, B, C,….
(The other kind of letters are called lower case: a, b, c,…. )
2. All sentences end with a period or an exclamation point or a question mark: . ! ?
3. A sentence contains at least one clause.
That is, a sentence contains at least one subject and at least one predicate.
4. All sentences follow a standard word order. These are correct sentences:
The dog bit the man.
The man bit the dog.
But this is not a sentence because the words (the same used in the two sentences above) are
not arranged in a standard English word order:
*The bit man dog the.
B. What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.
1. A clause tells us that someone or something (subject) is or was or does or did something
(predicate).
A subject is usually a noun or pronoun.
A predicate always contains a verb. A predicate may also contain other things (adverb, object,
complement,…), but a predicate always contains a verb.
2. A clause may be a sentence: Mary sings.
3. A clause may be a part of a sentence: Mary sings and Bill plays the guitar.
4. Some examples of clauses:
SUBJECT PREDICATE
Someone/Something is/was/does/did something.
George is a boy.
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He loves to eat.
What he loves to eat is pizza.
George and his friends might have pizza for lunch.
Pizza is not served at George's house.
C. What is a predicate verb?
A predicate verb has the following three characteristics:
1. A predicate verb has a subject. A subject is usually a noun or a pronoun, but a clause can be
a subject.
2. A predicate verb has voice (active or passive; see Passive Sentences).
3. A predicate verb has tense (past or present; see Tenses) or a modal (see Modal Auxiliaries).
These are the predicate verbs in the clauses above:
is (present tense, active voice)
loves (present tense, active voice)
is (present tense, active voice)
might have (modal, active voice)
is not served (present tense, passive voice)
D. What is a dependent clause?
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and predicate. A dependent
clause usually begins with a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns (see
Adjective Clauses), subordinating conjunctions (see Adverb Clauses), and noun clause
markers (see Noun Clauses). Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.
1. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence by itself. A dependent clause that is not part of
a sentence is a fragment. That is, a dependent clause which begins with a capital letter and
ends with a period is a fragment. Don’t write fragments.
2. A dependent clause can only be part of a sentence. Every sentence must have at least one
independent clause.
3. There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and
noun clauses. Some dependent clauses look like this:
SUBORDINATOR + SUBJECT + PREDICATE
that his bike is beautiful
which he got for Christmas
because his bike had a flat tire
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Other dependent clauses look like this :
SUBORDINATOR + PREDICATE
who loves his bike
whatever is on his plate
which is painted red and blue
The subordinator is also the subject in these clauses.
4. Subordinators can sometimes be omitted, so dependent clauses sometimes look like
independent clauses (Subject + Predicate).
Object relative pronouns (see Adjective Clauses) can usually be omitted.
The bike which he got for Christmas is beautiful.
The bike he got for Christmas is beautiful.
The noun clause marker (see Noun Clauses) that can be omitted if it is not the first word in a
sentence.
He knows that his bike is beautiful.
He knows his bike is beautiful.
5. Below are some examples of sentences with one independent clause and one dependent
clause. The dependent clauses are underlined.
George is a boy who loves his bike.
George’s bike, which is painted red and blue, is new.
Because his bike had a flat tire, George walked to school.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Adjective Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and
noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adjective clauses. Also see Adverb Clauses and Noun
Clauses.
A. Adjective clauses perform the same function in sentences that adjectives do: they
modify nouns.
The teacher has a car. (Car is a noun.)
It’s a new car. (New is an adjective which modifies car.)
The car that she is driving is not hers.
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(That she is driving is an adjective clause which modifies car. It’s a clause because it has a subject
(she) and a predicate (is driving); it’s an adjective clause because it modifies a noun.)
Note that adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify; adjective clauses always follow the nouns
they modify.
B. A sentence which contains one adjective clause and one independent clause is the
result of combining two clauses which contain a repeated noun. You can combine two
independent clauses to make one sentence containing an adjective clause by following these
steps:
1. You must have two clauses which contain a repeated noun (or pronoun, or noun and
pronoun which refer to the same thing). Here are two examples:
The book is on the table. + I like the book.
The man is here. + The man wants the book.
2. Delete the repeated noun and replace it with a relative pronoun in the clause you want to
make dependent. See C. below for information on relative pronouns.
The book is on the table. + I like which
The man is here. + who wants the book
3. Move the relative pronoun to the beginning of its clause (if it is not already there). The clause
is now an adjective clause.
The book is on the table. + which I like
The man is here. + who wants the book
4. Put the adjective clause immediately after the noun phrase it modifies (the repeated noun):
The book which I like is on the table.
The man who wants the book is here.
C. The subordinators in adjective clauses are called relative pronouns.
1. These are the most important relative pronouns: who, whom, that, which.
These relative pronouns can be omitted when they are objects of verbs. When they are objects
of prepositions, they can be omitted when they do not follow the preposition.
WHO replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and pronouns
that refer to animals or things. It can be the subject of a verb. In informal writing (but not in
academic writing), it can be used as the object of a verb.
WHOM replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people. It cannot replace nouns and
pronouns that refer to animals or things. It can be the object of a verb or preposition. It cannot
be the subject of a verb.
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WHICH replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to animals or things. It cannot replace nouns
and pronouns that refer to people. It can be the subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a
verb or preposition.
THAT replaces nouns and pronouns that refer to people, animals or things. It can be the
subject of a verb. It can also be the object of a verb or preposition (but that cannot follow a
preposition; whom, which, and whose are the only relative pronouns that can follow a
preposition).
2. The following words can also be used as relative pronouns: whose, when, where.
WHOSE replaces possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (see WF11 and pro in Correction
Symbols Two). It can refer to people, animals or things. It can be part of a subject or part of
an object of a verb or preposition, but it cannot be a complete subject or object. Whose cannot
be omitted. Here are examples with whose:
The man is happy. + I found the man’s wallet. =
The man whose wallet I found is happy.
The girl is excited. + Her mother won the lottery. =
The girl whose mother won the lottery is excited.
WHEN replaces a time (in + year, in + month, on + day,...). It cannot be a subject. It can be
omitted. Here is an example with when:
I will never forget the day. + I graduated on that day.=
I will never forget the day when I graduated.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
I will never forget the day on which I graduated.
I will never forget the day that I graduated.
I will never forget the day I graduated.
WHERE replaces a place (in + country, in + city, at + school,...). It cannot be a subject. It can
be omitted but a preposition (at, in, to) usually must be added. Here is an example with where:
The building is new. + He works in the building. =
The building where he works is new.
The same meaning can be expressed in other ways:
The building in which he works is new.
The building which he works in is new.
The building that he works in is new.
The building he works in is new.
D. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
1. A restrictive adjective clause contains information that is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. If a restrictive adjective clause is removed from a sentence, the meaning of the
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main clause changes. A restrictive adjective clause is not separated from the main clause by
a comma or commas. Most adjective clauses are restrictive; all of the examples of adjective
clauses above are restrictive. Here is another example:
People who can’t swim should not jump into the ocean.
2. A nonrestrictive adjective clause gives additional information about the noun it modifies but
is not necessary to identify that noun. If a nonrestrictive adjective clause is removed from a
sentence, the meaning of the main clause does not change. A nonrestrictive adjective
clause is separated from the main clause by a comma or commas. The relative pronoun that
cannot be used in nonrestrictive adjective clauses. The relative pronoun cannot be omitted from
a nonrestrictive clause. Here is an example:
Billy, who couldn’t swim, should not have jumped into the ocean.
E. Adjective clauses can often be reduced to phrases. The relative pronoun (RP) must be
the subject of the verb in the adjective clause. Adjective clauses can be reduced to phrases in
two different ways depending on the verb in the adjective clause.
1. RP + BE = 0
People who are living in glass houses should not throw stones. (clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Mary applied for a job that was advertised in the paper. (clause)
Mary applied for a job advertised in the paper. (phrase)
2. RP + OTHER VERB (not BE) = OTHER VERB + ing
People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.(clause)
People living in glass houses should not throw stones. (phrase)
Students who sit in the front row usually participate more. (clause)
Students sitting in the front row usually participate more. (phrase)
Noun Clauses
A. Noun clauses perform the same functions in sentences that nouns do:
A noun clause can be a subject of a verb:
What Billy did shocked his friends.
A noun clause can be an object of a verb:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
A noun clause can be a subject complement:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
A noun clause can be an object of a preposition:
Mary is not responsible for what Billy did.
A noun clause (but not a noun) can be an adjective complement:
Everybody is sad that Billy drowned.
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B. You can combine two independent clauses by changing one to a noun clause and
using it in one of the ways listed above. The choice of the noun clause marker (see below)
depends on the type of clause you are changing to a noun clause:
To change a statement to a noun clause use that:
I know + Billy made a mistake =
I know that Billy made a mistake.
To change a yes/no question to a noun clause, use if or whether:
George wonders + Does Fred know how to cook? =
George wonders if Fred knows how to cook.
To change a wh-question to a noun clause, use the wh-word:
I don’t know + Where is George? =
I don’t know where George is.
C. The subordinators in noun clauses are called noun clause markers. Here is a list of the
noun clause markers:
that
if, whether
Wh-words: how, what, when, where, which, who, whom, whose, why
Wh-ever words: however, whatever, whenever, wherever, whichever, whoever, whomever
D. Except for that, noun clause markers cannot be omitted. Only that can be omitted, but it
can be omitted only if it is not the first word in a sentence:
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know that he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s friends didn’t know he couldn’t swim.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was that he refused to take lessons.
correct:
Billy’s mistake was he refused to take lessons.
correct:
That Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
not correct:
* Billy jumped off the pier surprised everyone.
E. Statement word order is always used in a noun clause, even if the main clause is a
question:
not correct:
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* Do you know what time is it? (Question word order: is it)
correct:
Do you know what time it is? (Statement word order: it is)
not correct:
* Everybody wondered where did Billy go. (Question word order: did Billy go)
correct:
Everybody wondered where Billy went. (Statement word order: Billy went)
F. Sequence of tenses in sentences containing noun clauses:
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is present, the verb in the noun
clause is:
future if its action/state is later
He thinks that the exam next week will be hard.
He thinks that the exam next week is going to be hard.
present if its action/state is at the same time
He thinks that Mary is taking the exam right now.
past if its action/state is earlier
He thinks that George took the exam yesterday.
When the main verb (the verb in the independent clause) is past, the verb in the noun clause is:
was/were going to or would + BASE if its action/state is later
He thought that the exam the following week was going to be hard.
He thought that the exam the following week would be hard.
past if its action/state is at the same time
He thought that Mary was taking the exam then.
past perfect if its action/state is earlier
He thought that George had taken the exam the day before.
If the action/state of the noun clause is still in the future (that is, after the writer has written the
sentence), then a future verb can be used even if the main verb is past.
The astronaut said that people will live on other planets someday.
If the action/state of the noun clause continues in the present (that is, at the time the writer is
writing the sentence) or if the noun clause expresses a general truth or fact, the simple
present tense can be used even if the main verb is past.
We learned that English is not easy.
The boys knew that the sun rises in the east.
G. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one noun clause (underlined)
and one independent clause:
Noun clauses as subjects of verbs:
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That George learned how to swim is a miracle.
Whether Fred can get a better job is not certain.
What Mary said confused her parents.
However you learn to spell is OK with me.
Noun clauses as objects of verbs:
We didn’t know that Billy would jump.
We didn’t know Billy would jump.
Can you tell me if Fred is here?
I don’t know where he is.
George eats whatever is on his plate.
Noun clauses as subject complements:
The truth is that Billy was not very smart.
The truth is Billy was not very smart.
The question is whether other boys will try the same thing.
The winner will be whoever runs fastest.
Noun clauses as objects of prepositions:
Billy didn’t listen to what Mary said.
He wants to learn about whatever is interesting.
Noun clauses as adjective complements:
He is happy that he is learning English.
We are all afraid that the final exam will be difficult.
Adverb Clauses
See The Sentence for definitions of sentence, clause, and dependent clause.
A sentence which contains just one clause is called a simple sentence.
A sentence which contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is
called a complex sentence. (Dependent clauses are also called subordinate clauses.)
There are three basic types of dependent clauses: adjective clauses, adverb clauses, and
noun clauses. (Adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.)
This page contains information about adverb clauses. Also see Adjective Clauses and Noun
Clauses.
A. Adverb clauses show relationships such as time, cause and effect, contrast, and
condition. (See Conditional Sentences for more information on this type of adverb clause.)
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B. A sentence which contains one adverb clause and one independent clause is the
result of combining two clauses which have one of the relationships above. You can
combine two independent clauses to make one sentence which contains an adverb clause by
following these steps:
1. You must have two clauses which have one of the relationships in A above:
Billy couldn’t swim.
He jumped off the pier. (contrast)
2. Add a subordinating conjunction to the beginning of the clause you want to make
dependent:
Although Billy couldn’t swim
He jumped off the pier.
3. Place the two clauses next to each other. Usually, the order of the clauses is not important.
When the adverb clause precedes the independent clause, the two clauses are usually
separated by a comma:
Although Billy couldn’t swim, he jumped off the pier.
When the independent clause precedes the adverb clause, there is usually no comma:
Billy jumped off the pier although he couldn’t swim.
C. The subordinators in adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. They
cannot be omitted. They cannot be subjects. Here are some of the subordinating conjunctions:
Time: after, before, when, while, as, by the time, whenever, since, until, as soon as, once, as long as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as, as long as, inasmuch as, so (that), in order that
Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing (that), provided (that), in case, in the
event (that). See Conditional Sentences.
D. Here are some examples of sentences which contain one adverb clause (underlined)
and one independent clause. The two sentences in each pair have the same meaning:
After he took lessons, George could swim well.
George could swim well after he took lessons.
Because he couldn’t swim, Billy drowned.
Billy drowned because he couldn’t swim.
Although he isn’t interested in food, Fred works as a cook.
Fred works as a cook although he isn’t interested in food.
If you want to write well, you must practice.
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You must practice if you want to write well.
Conditional Sentences
Because conditional sentences are quite complex in both form and meaning, they are a problem for
most learners of English. If you have a good understanding of the English tense system and of the
modal auxiliaries, you will find it easier to understand and use conditional sentences. (The sentence
you just read is a predictive conditional sentence.)
All conditional sentences contain a dependent clause and an independent clause. The
dependent clause usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The independent clause
expresses a result of the condition. The if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is
usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have basically the same meaning:
If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream.
She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.
You have probably noticed that different teachers, textbooks, and Web sites sometimes explain
the same thing in different ways. This seems to be especially true of conditional sentences.
However, two different explanations can both be correct, especially if the difference is due to the
fact that complicated material has been organized in different ways. This is often true of
explanations of conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here conditional sentences are
divided into three types based on their meanings: real, predictive, and imaginative conditional
sentences.
Also see The Sentence, Modal Auxiliaries, Verbs A-L, Verbs M-Z, Tenses, and Adverb Clauses.
A. Real conditional sentences can express generalizations and inferences.
1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and never change, and they include
present or past habitual activities that are or were usually true.
Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually have the same tense (usually simple
present or simple past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense is used in the ifclause, will + verb can be used in the main clause without changing the meaning.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:
If water boils, it turns to steam.
If water boils, it will turn to steam.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual activities:
If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day.
If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.
These generalizations can also be expressed by using when or whenever instead of if:
When water boils, it turns to steam.
When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
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When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.
2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional sentences.
Real conditionals expressing inferences usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses.
However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an inference (must or should, for example) is
used in the main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing inferences:
If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday.
If I can do it, anyone can do it.
if it is raining, the streets are getting wet.
If he was at school, he saw the accident.
If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday.
If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it.
if it is raining, the streets must be getting wet.
If he was at school, he must have seen the accident.
B. Predictive conditional sentences can express predictions and plans.
1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in the if-clause and
will or be going to in the result clause. However, a weaker modal of prediction (may or should,
for example) can be used in the result clause to express less certainty.
2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:
If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail.
If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A in the class.
If George does well on the final exam, he may get an A in the class.
If Fred studies, he should pass the exam.
C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most difficult for many learners of English
because of the unusual relationship between form (the tenses used) and meaning.
In this type of conditional sentence, past tense refers to present or future time; past perfect
tense refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of English is that were (not was)
is used with singular subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense forms, but only
one of them (were) is used in imaginative conditional sentences.
Imaginative conditional sentences can express hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or
states.
1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but possible in the present or future.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing hypothetical events or states have a past
tense verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.
Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present and/or future time):
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If George had enough money, he would buy a new car.
If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present.
If she knew the answer, she would tell us.
(George probably does not have enough money; I probably will not win the lottery; she probably
does not know the answer.)
2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either impossible in the present time or did not
happen in the past.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present contrary-to-fact events or states have a
past verb in the if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the result clause.
Some examples:
If I were you, I would not do that.
If she studied for exams, she would get better grades.
If it were raining, the streets would be wet.
(I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t raining.)
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past contrary-to-fact events or states have a
past perfect verb in the if-clause and would + have + verb (or might or could + have + verb)
in the result clause. Some examples:
If George had had enough money, he would have bought a new car.
If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a present.
If she had known the answer, she would have told us.
(George did not have enough money; I did not win the lottery; she did not know the answer.)
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