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Ancient Rome (509 B.C. to 476 A.D.) In 509 B.C., Rome was founded. They formed a republic, where the people chose some of the officials. In a republic, people elect representatives to speak for them. This is the same type of democracy that we have in the United States today. The city of Rome, with its central location on the Italian peninsula, was able to extend its influence over the entire Mediterranean Basin. Unlike Greece, Italy’s geography made it easier to unify. Locations and Places: - Rome: Centrally located in the Mediterranean Basin and distant from eastern Mediterranean powers. - The capital is located on the Italian Peninsula. - The Italian Peninsula was protected by the sea and the arc of the Alps Mountains. - Sea-borne commerce (trade). Roman Military Domination of the Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe: After the victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars, Rome was able, over the next 100 years, to dominate the Mediterranean basin, leading to the diffusion (spreading out) of Roman culture. Carthage was a city-state in North Africa, settled by North Africans and Phoenician traders. As Rome began expanding westward, conflict arose between the two. Three wars resulted in Roman victory, the destruction of Carthage, and expanded trade and wealth for Rome. The wars were called the Punic Wars, from Punicus, the Latin word for Phoenician. Rome and Carthage were in competition for trade. Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage (264-146 B.C.) First Punic War: Rome defeated Carthage and won the Islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. Second Punic War: Carthaginian general Hannibal led his army through Gaul (modern day France) and over the Alps. Hannibal invaded the Italian Peninsula. Hannibal moved across Italy for 15 years, winning battles until the Romans moved to attack Carthage. Hannibal never took the city of Rome. Hannibal returned to Carthage where his army was defeated. Carthage lost all lands outside of Africa. Third Punic War: Rome moved in to destroy Carthage. Rome takes the land and establishes itself as dominating the Western Mediterranean. Evolution of the Roman Empire and Spread of Roman Culture: - Mediterranean basin (Africa, Asia, Europe, including the Hellenistic world of the Eastern Mediterranean). - Western Europe (Gaul, British Isles). Contributions of Ancient Rome Conquests and trade spread Roman cultural and technological achievements throughout the Empire. Like Greece, Western civilization was influence by the cultural achievements of Rome. Contributions of Ancient Rome: Art and architecture: Pantheon, Colesseum, Forum. The Pantheon is a building in Rome, Italy, commissioned as a temple to all the gods of Ancient Rome. It was destroyed in a fire and was rebuilt in 126 A.D. The Colosseum, or the Coliseum is an elliptical amphitheater in the center of the city of Rome, Italy. The largest ever built in the Roman Empire, built of concrete and stone. It was used for gladiatorial matches and public spectacles. The Roman Forum is a rectangular plaza surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. It was a center for public life in Rome. It was often used for processions, elections, public speeches, criminal trials, gladiatorial matches, a marketplace, and monuments. Technology: Roads, aqueducts (to carry water to the city), Roman arches. Roman roads were a vital part of the development of the Roman state, from about 500 B.C. through the expansion during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. Roman roads enabled the Romans to move armies, trade goods and to communicate. Literature: Virgil’s Aeneid: A Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 B.C., that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. Science: Achievements of Ptolemy (A.D. 90 – A.D. 168) was a Greek-Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. Medicine: Emphasis on public health (public baths, public water systems, medical schools). Language: Latin, romance languages. Religion: Roman mythology: Rome adopted Greek polytheism. Eventually, Rome adopted Christianity as the imperial religion. Law: concepts were introduced such as the principle of “innocent until proven guilty” (from the Twelve Tables). The Law of the Twelve Tables formed the centerpiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic. Roman Social Structure Although women, most aliens (non-Romans living in the Republic), and slaves were excluded from the governing process, the Roman Republic made major strides in the development of representative democracy, which became a foundation of modern democracy. Social Structure in the Roman Republic: - Patricians: Powerful nobility (few in number); made up of the landholding upper class. - Plebeians: Majority of population; made up of merchants, artisans, traders. - Slaves: Slavery was not based on race. Slaves were made up of people captured in battle, abandoned children, children who were sold into slavery to settle debts, and some criminals. Citizenship: - Made up of patrician and plebeian men and selected foreigners. - They had rights and responsibilities of citizenship (e.g., voting, taxes, military service). Features of Democracy: - Representative democracy – People elect representatives to speak for them. People would gather in assemblies to make laws and conduct important matters. - The Senate – 300 members that were elected for a life term, who greatly influenced the Roman republic’s laws. At first, it was open only to Patricians, but was eventually opened to Plebeians. - Consuls – (2 elected) The consuls supervised the government and commanded the armies. Like the senate, it was originally open only to patricians, but was eventually opened to plebeians. - Tribunes – Eventually, as plebeians gained more political power, tribunes were elected. Tribunes set out to protect the interests of the plebeians by vetoing (blocking) laws that were harmful to the plebeians. - Laws of Rome were codified as Twelve Tables. The Constitution is to the United States as the Twelve Tables is to Rome. The Twelve Tables were posted in the Forum in Rome. The Forum was the central marketplace and important gathering place in Rome. The Decline of the Roman Republic and the Rise of the Roman Empire The Roman Republic, in the face of changing social and economic conditions, succumbed to civil war (war between citizens of the same country) and was replaced by an imperial regime, the Roman Empire. Causes for the Decline of the Roman Republic: - Spread of slavery in the agricultural system. Slave revolts in the provinces of Rome added to the turmoil of the republic. - Migration of small farmers into cities and unemployment. - Civil war over the power of Julius Caesar (pictured left). - Devaluation of Roman currency; inflation. Struggles for power between the senate and other political leaders of Rome led to poor management of Rome. Also, there were armies staying loyal to their commanders, who provided them more benefits than the Roman government. Rival armies began emerging. During this time, Julius Caesar rose to power. Caesar was a military commander who was very successful in his conquest of Gaul. He was also part of the first triumvirate. The First Triumvirate was a political alliance of three individuals (Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus). After Caesar’s popularity rose, a rival by the name of Pompey ordered the disbanding of Caesar’s army. Caesar returned, with his army, to Rome in 49 B.C. Civil War broke out! Caesar defeated Pompey and forced the Senate to name him a dictator. Caesar became the absolute ruler of Rome, but maintained the senate and republic. Julius Caesar ruled from 48 B.C. to 44 B.C. He instituted a number of successful policies intended for reform. Citizenship increased in the Roman provinces, jobs were created, the poor were given land, and a new calendar was introduced (similar to what we use today, but with minor changes). In 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was killed. His enemies feared that he was going to name himself king of Rome. The Origin and Evolution of Imperial Rome: - The outcome of the First Triumvirate (Julius Caesar taking power). - Julius Caesar: After his seizure of power, his assassination. - Augustus Caesar (pictured right): Defeated of Mark Antony in a civil war, and became Rome’s first emperor. After Caesar's assassination, Antony (pictured left) formed an official political alliance with Octavian (the future Augustus) and Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate. Another civil war broke out (again!) between Octavian (Julius Caesar’s grandnephew) and Mark Antony (Julius Caesar’s chief general). Octavian won the power and became emperor. He took the title of Augustus (Exalted One), where he ruled from 31 B.C. until 14 A.D. Augustus brought an era of peace and stability called Pax Romana. - The empire was unified and enlarged, using imperial authority and the military. All of the states were unified under one emperor. - There was a failure to provide for peaceful succession of Emperors. There was no clear way to select a new emperor. Pax Romana Augustus Caesar established the Roman Empire by instituting civil service, rule by law, a common coinage, and secure travel and trade throughout the Empire. Following Augustus Caesar, the Roman Empire enjoyed 200 years of peace and prosperity known as Pax Romana (Roman Peace). The period ended with Marcus Aurelius. Features of Pax Romana: - Two centuries of peace and prosperity under imperial rule. - Expansion and solidification of the Roman Empire, particularly in the Near East. Economic Impact of the Pax Romana: - Established uniform system of money, which helped to expand trade. - Roman legions guaranteed safe travel and trade on Roman roads. - Promoted prosperity and stability. Social Impact of the Pax Romana: - Returned stability to social classes. - Increased emphasis on the family. Political Impact of the Pax Romana: - Created a civil service (government workers). - Developed a uniform rule of law. “I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble” - Caesar Augustus Religions of Rome The Pantheon is a temple in Rome dedicated to the seven planetary gods: Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Saturn. Roman Mythology Roman Mythology, like Greek mythology, was based upon a polytheistic religion that was integral to culture, politics, and art. Greek gods and goddesses still appear in many symbols and images in literature, art, and architecture. Many Western civilization’s symbols, metaphors, words, and idealized images come from ancient Roman mythology. - Based on Greek polytheistic religion. - Explanations of natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events. Roman Gods and Goddesses: - Jupiter (Derived from Zeus), Juno (Hera), Apollo (Still Apollo), Diana (Artemis), Minerva (Athena), Neptune (Poseidon), Pluto (Hades), and Venus (Aphrodite). Origins of Christianity The followers of Jesus spread Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, bringing it into conflict with Roman polytheism and eventually changing Western civilization. Origins of Christianity: - Had its roots in Judaism. - Was led by Jesus of Nazareth, who was proclaimed the Messiah. Jesus is regarded by Christians as the Messiah of the Hebrew prophecies and the savior of humankind. - Conflicted with polytheistic beliefs of Roman Empire. Beliefs, Traditions, and Customs of Christianity: - Monotheism (belief in one god). - Jesus as both son of God and incarnation of God. - Life after death. - New Testament, containing accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus, as well as writings of early Christians. - Christian doctrines (writings) established by early church councils. Category Nature of God Nature of Messiah Commandments Paths of Atonement (Fixing your wrong doings) Sin (wrong doings) Righteousness Holy Scriptures Satan Afterlife for Sinners Heaven Propagation of Faith (How it is spread) Judaism (Hebrew) Absolute One. Human Righteous King. Eternal and ultimate value. Sincere repentance (Remorse). All begin with a clean slate (born without sin). Within our power to choose. Torah: Written and oral. Agent of God. Gehinnom (Jewish Hell): A temporary situation enabling a corrective, redemptive process for the soul, with individual exceptions. All righteous have a place. They seldom convert people. Most are born into it. They encourage people to follow their law. Only very sincere converts are accepted to the faith. Christianity Holy Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Ghost). Divine sin sacrifice. Fulfilled in Jesus and therefore obsolete. Only through the blood of Jesus. All stained by the sin of Adam and Eve. Impossible. Written scriptures only. Fallen angel and enemy of God. Hell: Eternal damnation. Only Christians go to heaven Missionaries are encouraged to spread the faith. Spread of Christianity: - Popularity of the message. - Early martyrs (someone who is killed for their beliefs) inspired others. - Carried by the Apostles (important early Christian teacher), including Paul, throughout the Roman Empire. Decline and Fall of the Western Roman Empire Over a 300 year period, the western part of the Roman Empire steadily declined because of internal and external problems. Causes for the Decline of the Western Roman Empire: Geographic size: Difficulty of defense and administration of the Empire. Economy: The cost of defense, and devaluation of Roman currency (Inflation). Military: Army membership started to include non-Romans, resulting in decline of discipline. Moral Decay: People’s loss of faith in Rome and the family. Political Problems: Civil conflict and weak administration. Eventually, citizens lost faith in the government and stopped supporting it. Invasion: Attack on borders. Germanic invaders were able to exploit Rome’s weaknesses and slowly started to take over the Western Roman Empire. In 476 A.D., Rome, itself, was invaded and looted. To many, this marked the end of the Western Roman Empire. Division of the Roman Empire: Due to the massive size of the Empire, and various problems caused by Rome’s decline, Rome was split into two empires in order to control it better. This occurred in 284 A.D. by Emperor Diocletian. The empire would be ruled by co-emperors. In 312, Emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire survived until 476 A.D., when it ceased to have a Roman emperor. The Roman emperor was forced out by a Germanic leader. This is marked as the fall of Rome. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) survived for another 1000 years. Military Causes: - Germanic Invasions - Weakened Roman Legions - Problems securing borders - Less military disciplie and training Political Issues: - Oppressive Government - Corrupt officials - Divided empire - People stopped supporting government The Decline and the Fall of Rome Social Causes: - Erosion of traditional values - Self-serving upper class - Lack of discipline and devotion to duty. Economic Causes: - Heavy taxes to pay government - Middle class falling into poverty - Inflation and high prices - Farmers losing land The Significance of the Church in the Late Roman Empire In 313 A.D., Emperor Constantine (pictured right) granted freedom of worship to all citizens of the Roman Empire and by the end of the century, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. As the Roman Empire declined in the West, the Church of Rome grew in importance, followers and influence. Because of the geographical nature of the divided empire, the church had different influences in the two empires. In the East Empire, the emperor had more influence. In the West Empire, the Church was more influential. Impact of the Church of Rome in the Late Roman Empire: - The Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it legal. - Christianity later became the official state religion. - The Church became a source of moral authority. - Loyalty to the Church became more important than loyalty to the Emperor. - The Church became the main unifying force of Western Europe. Greek Name Roman Name Aphrodite Venus Goddess of love and beauty, wife of Hephaestus, was said to have been born fullygrown from the sea-foam. Apollo Apollo God of the arts, of light and healing (Roman sun god) twin brother of Artemis, son of Zeus. Ares Mars Hated god of war, son of Zeus and Hera. Artemis Diana Goddess of the hunt, twin sister of Apollo, connected with childbirth and the healing arts. Athena Minerva Warrior goddess of wisdom, patron goddess of the useful arts, daughter of Zeus who sprang fully-grown from her father's head. Cronus Saturn Titan sky god, supreme ruler of the titans and father to many Olympians, his reign was referred to as 'the golden age'. Demeter Ceres Goddess of the harvest, particularly of grain, sister of Zeus, mother of Persephone. Dionysus Bacchus God of wine and vegetation, patron god of the drama. Gaia Terra Mother goddess of the earth, daughter of Chaos, mother of Uranus. Hades Pluto God of the underworld, ruler of the dead, brother of Zeus, husband of Persephone. Hephaestus Vulcan Lame god of the forge, talented blacksmith to the gods, son of Zeus and Hera, husband of Aphrodite. Hera Juno Goddess of marriage and childbirth, queen of the Olympians, jealous wife and sister of Zeus, mother of Hephaestus, Ares and Hebe. Hermes Mercury Quick-witted, clever messenger of the gods, patron god of travelers, thieves and merchants, escort of souls to Hades, son of Zeus. Hestia Vesta Peace-loving goddess of the hearth, guardian of the home, sister of Zeus. Persephone Proserpine Daughter of Zeus and Demeter who was kidnapped by Hades and forced to become his wife; she spends half the year in the underworld with her husband and returns every spring to live with her mother. Poseidon Neptune God of the sea and earthquakes, brother of Zeus. Rhea Ops Wife of Cronus. Uranus Uranus Father of the Titans. Zeus Jupiter Sky god known as 'the thunderer,' supreme ruler of the Olympians. Description