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PSYC 2301 CORE LEARNING OBJECTIVES AND KEY TERMS Wood, Wood, & Boyd Mastering the World of Psychology 5E CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Learning Objectives 1. Define psychology. 2. Define the scientific method and explain how it is used in psychology. 3. Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. 4. Define and explain the differences between the various descriptive research methods. 5. Define representative sample and explain why it is important. 6. Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between independent and dependent variables. 7. Explain the rationale behind placebo-control experiments. 8. Outline the ethical standards that psychological researchers must follow. Key Terms Psychology Scientific method Pages 3 3-6 Behaviorism Psychoanalysis Humanistic psychology Cognitive psychology Evolutionary psychology Biological psychology Sociocultural approach Naturalistic observation Laboratory observations Case study Survey Correlation Correlation coefficient Population Sample Representative sample Experimental method Causal hypothesis Independent variable Dependent variable Experimental group Control group Random assignment Placebo effect Placebo Experimenter bias Double-blind procedure 9-14 18-22 19-20 23-25 25-27 28-30 1 CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR Learning Objectives 1. Describe various methods for studying the brain and its functions. Key Terms Electroencephalogram (EEG) CT scan (computerized axial tomography) MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) PET scan (positron emission tomography) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Neuron Cell body Dendrites Axon Synaptic gap Synapse Presynaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron Resting potential Action potential Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Dopamine Norepinephrine Serotonin Endorphins Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Autonomic nervous system Sympathetic nervous system Parasympathetic nervous system Brain stem Medulla Pons Cerebellum Hypothalamus Limbic system Amygdala Hippocampus Cerebrum Cerebral hemispheres Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex Association areas Frontal lobes Motor cortex Broca’s area Broca’s aphasia Plasticity Endocrine system Hormones Pituitary gland Adrenal glands Behavior genetics 2. Identify the basic components of the neuron. 3. Identify the basic components of the synapse. 4. Define the action potential and explain the processes that occur when a neuron is activated. 5. Identify the major neurotransmitters and explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior. 6. Explain the difference between the central and the peripheral nervous systems. 7. Explain the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. 8. Identify the medulla, pons and cerebellum, and describe their functions. 9. List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus. 10. Describe the limbic system, and list the responses and behaviors affected by it. 11. Describe the components of the cerebrum and their functions. 12. Explain the functions of the frontal lobes. 13. Explain plasticity. 14. Define the endocrine system and explain the influence of the pituitary and adrenal glands on behavior. 15. Define behavior genetics 2 Pages 39-41 41-42 42-43 43-44 44-46 Table 2.1 47 47-49 49-50 51 51-52 52-53 53, 57-59 61 63-65 67 CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Learning Objectives 1. Describe the function of the mirror neuron system (MNS). Key Terms Mirror neuron system (MNS) Pages 99 CHAPTER 4: CONSCIOUSNESS Learning Objectives 1. Describe the physical and psychological effects of meditation Key Terms Meditation Pages 128-129 CHAPTER 5: LEARNING Learning Objectives 1. Define and identify examples of learning. 2. Explain the process through which classical conditioning modifies an organism’s responses to stimuli. Key Terms Learning Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Neutral stimulus Extinction (in classical conditioning) Spontaneous recovery (Stimulus) generalization (Stimulus) discrimination 3. Summarize the contributions of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner to the study of learning. 4. Explain the process through which operant conditioning modifies an organism’s responses to stimuli. Operant conditioning Reinforcer Extinction (in operant conditioning) Generalization Discriminative stimulus Reinforcement Primary reinforcer Secondary reinforcer Shaping Successive approximations Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Positive punishment Negative punishment Behavior modification Token economy Biofeedback Observational learning 5. Define shaping. 6. Explain the difference between positive and negative reinforcement. 7. Define punishment and summarize the factors that influence its effectiveness. 8. Explain the applications of operant conditioning theory. 9. Define observational learning. 3 Pages 145 145-149 146-147 149-150 154-155 153-156 154 155-156 158-159 162-164 166 CHAPTER 6: MEMORY Learning Objectives 1. Explain the information-processing approach to memory. Key Terms Information processing approach Encoding Storage Retrieval Short-term memory Working memory Long-term memory Episodic memory Semantic memory Declarative memory (explicit memory) Nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonics Organization Overlearning Massed practice Spaced (distributed) practice Self-references Visual imaginary Recall Free recall Cued recall (retrieval cue) Recognition Schema Encoding failure Decay theory Interference Motivated forgetting Retrieval failure Displacement Eyewitness accounts Alzheimer’s disease 2. Describe the function and characteristics of short-term memory. 3. Describe the characteristics of long-term memory. 4. Describe several techniques for improving memory. 5. Explain the differences between recall, free recall, cued recall, and recognition measures of memory. 6. Explain the roles of schemas in memory. 7. Explain the reasons for forgetting. 8. Describe the process of reconstructive memory. 9. Describe the symptoms and proposed causes of Alzheimer’s disease. Pages 179-180 180-183 183-185 183-186 186 188-189 194-197 181 202-203 201 CHAPTER 7: COGNITION, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE Learning Objectives None Key Terms None 4 Pages CHAPTER 8: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives 1. Describe the process of cognitive development according to Piaget. 2. Summarize the characteristics of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development. 3. Explain Kohlberg’s levels and stages of moral development. 4. Summarize the characteristics of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. 5. Explain the differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs. 6. List the characteristics of the three stages of prenatal development. 7. Explain the effects of teratogens and other negative factors on prenatal development. 8. Describe the relationship between contact comfort and attachment. 9. Explain the differences between the secure, anxiousambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized patterns of attachment. 10. Explain the effects of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles on children’s development. 11. Explain the difference between sex and gender. 12. Explain the social learning theory and gender schema theory explanations of gender role development. Key Terms Schemes Assimilation Accommodation Sensorimotor stage Object permanence Preoperational stage Egocentrism Concrete operations stage Conservation Formal operations stage Preconventional level and stages Conventional level and stages Postconventional level and stages Trust/mistrust Autonomy/shame & doubt Initiative/guilt Industry/inferiority Identity/role confusion Intimacy/isolation Generativity/stagnation Ego integrity/despair Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Zygote Period of the zygote (germinal stage) Period of the embryo Period of the fetus Teratogen Fetal alcohol syndrome Attachment Separation anxiety Stranger anxiety Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Resistant attachment Disorganized/disoriented attachment Authoritarian parents Authoritative parents Permissive parents Sex Gender Gender identity Social learning theorists Gender-schema theory Pages 253 253-255 259-261 262-264 Supplemental Reading 1 (See p. 8) 264-265 265-266 268-271 270 273-274 Supplemental Reading 2 (See pp. 9-10) 274-275 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 1. Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 2. Outline the proposed causes of sexual orientation. Hierarchy of needs Sexual orientation 5 302 312-313 CHAPTER 10: HEALTH AND STRESS Learning Objectives 1. Explain the purpose and structure of the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS.) 2. Describe the features of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 3. Describe the impact of daily hassles on stress and health. 4. Describe the effects of stress on the immune system. 5. Describe the stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). 6. Explain the differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. 7. List the factors that influence individual capacity for resisting the effects of stress. Key Terms Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) Pages 330-331 Post-traumatic stress disorder 331 Hassles Biopsychosocial model Health psychology Psychoneuroimmunology General Adaptation syndrome (GAS) Alarm stage Resistance stage Exhaustion stage Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping Resilience (risk/resilience model) Hardiness Social support Reduce irrational thought 331-332 335-338 338-339 340 340-343 CHAPTER 11: PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT Learning Objective 1. Define personality. 2. Describe the processes that take place in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind. 3. Define and identify the functions of the id, ego, and superego. 4. Explain the purpose of defense mechanisms in Freud’s theory. 5. Summarize the basic assumptions associated with Freud’s psychosexual stages. 6. Explain the views of humanistic theorists regarding personality. 7. Explain the views of Abraham Maslow on self-actualization and its role in personality functioning. 8. Explain the Big Five personality traits. 9. Explain Bandura’s social-cognitive view of personality. 10. Describe the evidence for and against the view that personality is inherited. 11. Explain the differences between objective (self-report inventory) and projective personality test. Key Terms Personality Conscious Preconscious Unconscious Id Ego Superego Defense mechanism Repression Projection Denial Regression Reaction formation Displacement Psychosexual stages Pages 364 364 Humanistic psychology 370 Self-actualization 371 Traits Big Five (five-factor model) Social cognitive theory Reciprocal determinism Self-efficacy 372 374-376 378-379 364-365 365-366 Table 11.1 366-367 376-377 Self-report inventory Projective test 6 381-385 CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Learning Objectives 1. List the criteria for abnormal behavior. 2. Describe the purpose, organization, and content of the DSM5. 3. Define and describe the group of disorders called “anxiety disorders.” 4. Describe the features of obsessive-compulsive disorders. 5. Describe the features of major depression. 6. Summarize the features of bipolar disorder. 7. Summarize the risk factors for suicide. 8. Describe the features of schizophrenia. 9. List the possible causes of schizophrenia. 10. Describe the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder. 11. Summarize the features of the personality disorders. Key Terms Maladaptive/dysfunctional behaviors Deviation from social/cultural norms Personal distress DSM-5 Pages 393-394 Agoraphobia Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder Social anxiety disorder Specific phobias Obsessive-compulsive disorders Major depressive disorder Bipolar disorder Mania (manic episode) 397-400 Schizophrenia Dissociative identity disorder (DID) Personality disorders Paranoid personality Narcissistic personality Borderline personality Antisocial personality 395-396 401-402 403 403-404 406-407 407-408 408-411 412-413 413-414 Table 12.3 CHAPTER 13: THERAPIES Learning Objectives 1. Describe the effects of substituting rational beliefs for irrational ones on emotional functioning. 2. Explain the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist. 3. Summarize the various approaches to therapy. Key Terms Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Pages 434-435 Psychologist Psychiatrist Psychoanalysis Person-centered (client-centered) therapy Behavior therapy Cognitive therapy Biomedical therapy 442 446 Summary Table CHAPTER 14: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Learning Objectives None Key Terms None 7 Pages Supplemental Reading 1 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research Designs How would you study changes over the lifespan? You could follow a group of people as they get older, or you could compare individuals of different ages. Developmental psychologists use both approaches in their research. In a longitudinal study, the same group of participants is followed and measured at different ages, over a period of years. Such studies allow researchers to observe age-related changes in individuals. There are some drawbacks to a longitudinal study, however. It is time consuming and expensive, and participants may drop out of the study or die, possibly leaving the researcher with a biased sample. A cross-sectional study is a less expensive and less time-consuming method in which researchers compare groups of participants of different ages to determine age-related differences in some characteristics. But, in a cross-sectional study, differences across age groups are based on group averages, so this approach cannot be used to answer certain questions. For example, it could not be used to determine if individual temperament is stable over time. Moreover, certain relevant differences in groups of participants may have less to do with the participants’ ages than with the eras in which they grew up, a problem known as the cohort effect. 8 Supplemental Reading 2 Sex and Gender Do you use the words sex and gender interchangeably? Most people do, but the words have different meanings. Generally speaking, sex is a biological term. It typically refers to the physiological status of being male or female. As you learned in Chapter 2, the sex chromosomes, XX in females and XY in males, determine one’s biological sex. Information on these chromosomes contributes to the development of the genitalia and other aspects of biological sex. By contrast, gender is more commonly used to refer to the psychological and social variables associated with one’s sex. Cultural expectations for males and females are called gender roles. Gender roles include psychological as well as behavioral components. A culture’s gender role for males is referred to as the masculine gender role, and its gender role for females is referred to as the feminine gender role. The integration of culturally defined masculine and feminine gender roles into one’s sense of self underlies the development of gender identity, the psychological experience of feeling male or female. Most boys grow up with a masculine gender identity that helps them to be comfortable with the behaviors that their cultures regard as acceptable for males. Likewise, most female children develop a feminine gender identity that is consistent with behaviors in the cultures in which they are raised. But what do you think happens when a person’s sex and his or her gender identity do not match? In other words, what are the consequences of having male sex combined with female gender identity or female sex combined with male gender identity? A person who is transgendered has a gender identity that is the opposite of his or her biological sex. Thus, the person has a strong desire to be the opposite sex. Some studies suggest that transgendered individuals may have been exposed to atypical amounts of androgens in the womb (Lippa, 2005a). But most do not have such histories. Moreover, most children who express a desire to be the opposite sex no longer do so after puberty (Wallien & Cohen-Kettenis, 2008). Thus, the origin of transgenderism remains a mystery. 9 In an effort to bring congruence to their lives, some transgendered individuals wear clothing and display behaviors that are more typical of the opposite sex. Those who live as the opposite gender on a full-time basis are known as transsexuals. Some transsexuals are so anguished by the conflict between their sex and their gender identity that they undergo sex reassignment—a process involving hormonal treatment, reconstructive surgery, and psychological counseling—in order to achieve a match between the two. Research shows that, following sex reassignment, transsexuals are generally satisfied with the results and seldom regret their decision (Lawrence, 2003). The phenomenon of transgenderism illustrates the fact that biological sex and psychological gender are distinct entities. Moreover, biological sex is clearly categorical; that is, people are either male or female, rare cases of intersexual status notwithstanding. By contrast, psychological gender seems to vary by degrees. As noted, most girls grow up to be comfortable with their culture’s feminine gender role, but they do not all conform to that gender role to the same degree. The same is true for boys. Thus, one of the most widely researched questions in psychology concerns the process through which children develop their understanding of cultural gender roles and integrate that understanding into their own sense of self. 10