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Def’n: matter – anything that takes up space, which have both physical and chemical properties Def’n: chemistry – the study of matter, its properties, and its changes or transformations Q. How do we use chemistry in everyday life? Why is it important to have safety rules in a laboratory? Textbook page 658 - 660 WHMIS is the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System It provides information about many hazardous materials used in the workplace Employers are to ensure that their workers are trained in WHMIS if their workplace contains any hazardous materials There are eight WHMIS symbols: Class A: Compressed Gas This class includes compressed gases, dissolved gases, and gases liquefied by compression or refrigeration. Class B: Flammable and Combustible Material This class includes solids, liquids, and gases capable of catching fire in the presence of a spark or open flame under normal working conditions. Class C: Oxidizing Material These materials increase the risk of fire if they come in contact with flammable or combustible materials. CLASS D: POISONOUS AND INFECTIOUS MATERIAL Division 1: Materials Causing Immediate and Serious Toxic Effects These materials can cause death or immediate injury when a person is exposed to small amounts. Examples: sodium cyanide, hydrogen sulphide CLASS D: POISONOUS AND INFECTIOUS MATERIAL Division 2: Materials Causing Other Toxic EFFECTS These materials can cause life-threatening and serious long-term health problems as well as less severe but immediate reactions in a person who is repeatedly exposed to small amounts. CLASS D: POISONOUS AND INFECTIOUS MATERIAL Division 3: Biohazardous Infectious MATERIAL These materials contain harmful micro-organisms that have been classified into Risk Groups 2, 3, and 4 as determined by the World Health Organization (WHO) or the Medical Research Council of Canada. CLASS E: CORROSIVE MATERIAL This class includes caustic and acid materials that can destroy the skin or eat through metals. Examples: sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid CLASS F: DANGEROUSLY REACTIVE MATERIAL These products may selfreact dangerously (for example, they may explode) upon standing or when exposed to physical shock or to increased pressure or temperature, or they emit toxic gases when exposed to water. MSDS are the Materials Safety Data Sheets They contain important information about an individual chemical A sheet comes with a chemical when you order them There are nine categories on a MSDS: Product Information: product identifier (name), manufacturer and suppliers names, addresses, and emergency phone numbers Hazardous Ingredients Physical Data Fire or Explosion Hazard Data Reactivity Data: information on the chemical instability of a product and the substances it may react with Toxicological Properties: health effects Preventive Measures First Aid Measures Preparation Information: who is responsible for preparation and date of preparation of MSDS Page 173 – 174; 290 There are several tests used to determine the presence of certain chemicals: › › › › › › For oxygen, we have the glowing stick test For hydrogen, we have the lit splint test For carbon dioxide, we have the lime water test For water, we have the cobalt chloride paper test For acids and bases, we have litmus paper. For aqueous solutions of salt, we have the conductivity test Textbook page 173 Physical property – a characteristic of a substance such colour, ability to conduct heat and/or electricity, lustre, smell, etc. Chemical property – a characteristic behaviour that occurs when a substance changes to a new substance such as ability to burn, reactivity with water, pH, ability to rust, explosive, etc. Physical change – a change in the appearance of a substance without changing the chemical make up of the substance such as a phase change, crumbling, dissolving, bending, etc. Chemical change – a change in the chemical properties such as burning, rusting, reacting the chemical with another substance (e.g. vinegar in baking soda, etc.) Generally speaking, physical changes are reversible (in theory) and chemical changes are not. Worksheet Page 175 #4, 5 Recall that atoms are the basic building block of matter. Each atom contains subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) › Protons are positively charged, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negatively charged. › Protons and neutrons make up the middle, or nucleus, of an atom while the electrons fly around it in various energy levels › The outer most level is known as the valence electron level. It is in this level that electrons are either gained or lost. Atoms want to have full electron levels in order to be stable. › Not the Noble gases have full valence levels and, therefore, do not form ions. › In order to become stable atoms will lose or gain electrons (whichever is least) to form simple ions (only one charged atom). Metals (the left side of the periodic table) always lose electrons to obtain the nearest noble gas configuration. › These form cations › Since they lose electrons, these atoms now have more protons than they do electrons and are, therefore, positively charged › The group number (A’s) is the number of electrons which the atom will lose Non-metals (right side of the periodic table) always gain electrons to obtain the nearest noble gas configuration. › These form anions › Since these gain electrons, these atoms now have more electrons than protons and are, therefore, negatively charged Worksheet #1 Recall from last year that you can draw the electron levels in a Bohr diagram. There are two ways to do this, either with circles (messy) or with lines The number of energy levels in a Bohr diagram is equal to the row number in which the element is found. Ex. Draw a Bohr diagram for each of the following: 1. Magnesium 2. Chlorine When drawing a Bohr diagram for an ion, we need to think about how an atom becomes an ion (by losing or gaining electrons). › We need to show this on the digram. › Note that all the Bohr diagrams for metallic ions will look like the diagram for the Nobel Gas that proceeds it, while the Bohr diagrams for non-metallic ions look like the diagrams for the Noble Gas which comes after it. Ex. Draw a Bohr diagram for each ion. 1. Aluminium ion 2. Fluoride ion *Bohr diagram worksheet Page 189; 201 - 202 Binary Molecular Compounds Involve the sharing of electrons resulting in covalent bonding Composed of two non-metals Exist as individual molecules May or may not be in lowest whole number ratios Covalent Bonding (Molecular Compounds) Sharing of electrons › the two non-metals both want to gain electrons (to be like the noble gases), since both cannot gain electrons at the same time they share. The unit formed by a covalent bond is called a molecule (it is neutral it has no charge) Mono-atomic elements › Mono means one so these are elements that exist on their own in nature. › Namely the noble gases: He – helium Ne – neon Ar – argon Kr – krypton Xe – xenon Rn – radon No need to memorize these as they are listed in the periodic table Diatomic molecular compounds › These are non-metals that exist in nature as two atoms joined together. › They are: H2 – hydrogen O2 – oxygen N2 – nitrogen Cl2 – chlorine F2 – flourine Br2 – bromine I2 - iodine Polyatomic molecular elements › These are non-metals that exist in nature with many atoms joined together › These are: S8 – sulfur O3 – ozone P4 – phosphorus (red) P10 - phosphorus (white) Molecule – a neutral particle that is made up of two or more atoms that are joined together by covalent bonds Molecular formula – chemical formula which denotes the number and type of different atoms in a molecule Empirical formula – the simplest chemical formula that can be written for a compound (smallest whole number ratio of atoms For example, water has the molecular formula H2O and the empirical formula H2O since the atoms are already in the simplest form. Whereas hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula H2O2 and the empirical formula HO. Polyatomic ion – an ion that consists of two or more different non-metal atoms that are joined by covalent bonds Simple ion – an atom that carries an electrical charge; positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charges ions are called anions Formula unit - the chemical formula with the least number of elements out of the set of empirical formulas having the same proportion of ions as elements. Ex. NaCl is the formula unit for the ionic compound sodium chloride. Aqueous solution – a solution in which water is the solvent Electrolyte – a substance that dissolves in water, producing a solution that is able to conduct electricity Nonelectrolyte – a substance that dissolves in water and does not produce a solution that conducts electricity Page 203 - 204 Trivial names › These are names on compounds that do not follow the guidelines put out by IUPAC. › These are: H2O – water H2O2 – hydrogen peroxide NH3 – ammonia C12H22O11 – sucrose For binary molecular compounds, we use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms that are present in the compound. These are: › › › › › › › › › › Mono – one Di – two Tri – three Tetra – four Penta – five Hexa – six Hepta – seven Octa – eight Nona – nine Deca - ten When writing the name of a molecular compound start with the first element, not changing the name except for the prefix. Then write the name of the second element with the prefix and changing the ending of the name to – ide. Note: the prefix mono on the first element only is optional. For example, name the compound CCl4 The first element is carbon and there is only one of them. The second element is chlorine and there are 4 of them. Therefore the name would be monocarbon tetrachloride or carbon tetrachloride Ex 2. Write the IUPAC name for P4F6. Sol’n: The first element is phosphorus and there are four atoms. The second element is flourine and there are six atoms. Therefore the name of this compound is: tetraphosphorus hexafluoride Your turn. Name each of the following. 1. P4F5 2. C2O4 3. NO3 4. Cl2O 5. N3Br2 6. O6I2 When writing molecular formulas you look up each element on the periodic table to determine the chemical symbol for the element. (Don’t forget that the ending on the second element has been changed to –ide) Use the prefix on each element to determine the number of atoms present. Write this number to the right of the symbol and as a subscript. Ex. Write the formula for diboron hexahydride. The first element is boron which is B and di means 2. The second element is hydride (or hydrogen) which is H and hexa means 6. We have B2H6 Ex. Write the formula for nitrogen triiodide. The first element is nitrogen which is N and since there is no prefix there is only one. The second element is iodide (or iodine) and tri means 3. We have N1I3 or NI3. Your turn. Write the formulas for each of the following. a. Carbon disulfide b. Dinitrogen pentabromide c. Silicon trifluoride d. Hexaphosphorus pentachloride Worksheet #2 Ionic Compounds: Involve the transfer of electron(s), i.e. gaining and losing electrons, resulting in ionic bonding Made up of two oppositely charged ions (metal and non-metal, or combination involving a polyatomic ion) Exist in the form of an ionic crystal lattice (not individual molecules) Are always written as empirical formulas (lowest whole number ratio) Page 192 - 194 There are three categories of ionic compounds that we will deal with. 1. Binary ionic a) Simple ions (only single charges) b) Multivalent ions (more than one charge) 2. Polyatomic ions (complex ions) 3. Hydrates Binary ionic compounds are composed of a metal ion (+) and non-metal ion (-). › Binary simply means that only 2 ions are involved. Ex. NaCl – the combination of a sodium ion and a chloride ion. Rules for naming simple binary ionic compounds (meaning a compound with only two elements: 1. Name the cation (+) by writing the full name of the metal. 2. Name the anion (-) by shortening the name of the atom and adding the –ide ending. Ex. NaCl sodium chloride CaF2 calcium fluoride K2O potassium oxide **Note: Do NOT use prefixes – they are for molecular compounds only (i.e. two non-metals) Your turn. Name the following: 1. LiBr 2. AlCl3 3. Rb2S 4. Mg3P2 5. CaO Rules for writing binary ionic formulas: 1. Write down the symbols of the ions involved. 2. Cross over the charges and write as subscripts. 3. Determine the lowest whole number ratio of ions that will give a net charge of zero. 4. You do not need to write 1’s. Ex. 1) Write the chemical formula for potassium bromide. 2) Write the chemical formula for calcium oxide. 3) Write the chemical formula for magnesium iodide. Your turn. Write the chemical formula for each compound: 1. Sodium sulfide 2. Aluminum bromide 3. Barium iodide 4. Magnesium nitride 5. Aluminum nitride Worksheet #3 Page 195 Ions of certain elements can have more than one possible charge. Such elements are called multivalent species. Ex. Copper is multivalent its ions can have either a 1+ or 2+ ion charge (Cu+ or Cu2+) - these charges are provided on the periodic table These multivalent elements are all transition metals When we name these compounds we need to indicate which ion we are using and we do this by using Roman numerals to represent the ionic charge. (Do worry if you don’t know your Roman numerals as they are written on your periodic table of ions, but if you plan on doing Chemistry 2202/3202 you will need to know them) Roman numerals: › One – I › Two – II › Three – III › Four – IV › Five – V › Six – VI Rules for naming multivalent binary ionic compounds: 1. Determine if the metal has more than one possible charge (i.e. multivalent) consult periodic table 2. “Uncross” the subscripts and write them as ionic charges. I.e. work backwards. 3. 4. See if that charge is there on the periodic table for that element. If not then you will have to look up the charge on the anion (i.e. the non metal) and see what scale factor to use. Write the name of the compound. Be sure to indicate the identity of the metal ion with Roman numerals. Ex 1. Write the IUPAC name for SnCl4. **See other board for solution. Ex 2. Write the IUPAC name for CrBr3. **See other board for solution. Your turn. Write the names for the following compounds: 1. TiO2 2. AuCl3 3. Fe2O3 4. AgI These are done in the same manner as binary ionic compounds. Use the Roman numeral to determine the ionic charge on the cation (i.e. the positive ion) Ex. Write the chemical formula for iron (II) chloride. **See other board for solution. Your turn. Write chemical formula for the following compounds: 1. Titanium (III) fluoride 2. Titanium (IV) fluoride 3. Nickel (II) oxide 4. Lead (IV) sulfide 5. Vanadium (V) oxide Worksheet #4 Page 196 - 198 A polyatomic ion is two or more atoms covalently bonded together that carry an overall charge. Since they have a charge they can gain or lose electrons to form ionic compounds. These ions are listed on your periodic table of ions but this list is not exhausted, i.e. There are more polyatomic ions than what’s listed. To identify these compounds look at the elements involve. If you have more than two elements in the compound and the compound is not in your trivial names list than it contains a polyatomic ion. You name these the same way you name ionic compounds: look up the element/polyatomic ion and write the names down not changing the second name to have the ending –ide. Ex 1. (NH4)3PO4 **See other board for solution Ex 2. Cr(NO3)3 **See other board for solution Your turn. Write the name of the following compounds. 1) Zn(OH)2 2) Pb(NO3)2 3) Mg(CH3COO)2 4) Na3BO3 5) K2Cr2O7 When writing the formulas for compounds containing a polyatomic ion(s), you treat the ion as a single unit, not as individual elements. If you need to write a subscript for a polyatomic ion, then you must enclose the ion in brackets. Remember to use the charges on the polyatomic ions to determine how many you need to have a balanced compound, NOT the subscripts!!! Ex 1. sodium chlorite **See other board for solution Ex 2. iron (III) sulfate **See other board for solution Ex 3. ammonium permanganate **See other board for solution Your turn. Write the formula for each of the following. 1. Sodium hydroxide 2. Potassium bicarbonate 3. Potassium carbonate 4. Magnesium hydroxide 5. Ammonium sulfate Worksheet #5 Page 236 Def”n: ionic hydrates – a compound that has water associated with it. Water is part of its crystalline structure. Ex. Bluestone (CuSO45H2O) contains five water molecules per copper (II) sulfate molecule in the crystal. Def’n: anhydrous – without water. Ex. Anhydrous bluestone is CuSO4 When writing formulas for ionic hydrates, you write the formula for the ionic compound as already learned and add on H2O. Hydrates use the same prefixes as molecular compounds to indicate how many water molecules are associated with compound. To tell whether or not you have a hydrate or not, you look for the word hydrate. Ex. Write the chemical formula for each hydrate: a) Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate **See other board for solution b) Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate **See other board for solution. Your turn. Write the formulas for each of the following. 1. Zinc sulfate heptahydrate 2. Potassium sulfate decahydrate 3. Cadmium nitrate tetrahydrate Name the ionic compound as already learned and add on hydrate with the appropriate prefix. Ex. Write the name for: 1. Ni3(PO4)28H2O **See other board for solution 2. Fe(OH)33H2O **See other board for solution Your turn. Name the following compounds. 1. CuSO4∙5H2O 2. NiCl2∙6H2O 3. CoCl2∙5H2O Worksheet #6 Complete the Pre-lab Activity Complete the lab activity and prepare a lab report following the handout. Attach answers to questions to the back of the report. Go back and complete the chart – Properties of Ionic and Molecular Compounds p. 23 Page 288 – 290 Page 293 – 294 Page 295 Def’n: acids – molecules that ionize in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+) The properties of acids include: Turn blue litmus paper red React with metals to produce hydrogen gas Neutralize bases Have low pH (<7) Taste sour Def’n: base – ionic compounds that contain the hydroxide ion (OH¯) The properties of bases include: Turn red litmus blue Neutralize acids High pH (>7) Form slippery solutions Bitter taste Salts are formed as a result of the reaction between an acid and a base › Salts form electrolytic solutions when dissolved in water Acid + Base Salt + Water Ex. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(aq) + NaCl(aq) Note: There are more salts than just table salt (NaCl) To distinguish acids and bases from other types of compounds look for (aq) next to the chemical formula which means that the compound is dissolved in water which acids and bases need to be. Name bases the same way you name any ionic compound. Naming acids depends on the anion (negative ion) › If the anion is an element or a polyatomic ion ending with –ide then 1. Drop the –gen ending of hydrogen 2. Replace the –ide ending of the anion with –ic 3. Add the word acid Ex. HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid › If the anion is polyatomic and ends with –ate 1. Drop the name hydrogen 2. Replace the –ate ending of the anion with –ic 3. Add the word acid Ex. HClO3(aq) chloric acid › If the anion is polyatomic and ends with –ite 1. Drop the name hydrogen 2. Replace the –ite ending of the anion with – ous 3. Add the word acid Ex. HClO2(aq) chlorous acid Note: With sulfur leave the –ur, for example, H2SO3(aq) sulfurous acid. With phosphorus leave the –or , for example, H3PO4(aq) phosphoric acid Your turn. Name the following acids: 1. HBr(aq) 2. HNO3(aq) 3. HNO2(aq) 4. HCN(aq) 5. H2CrO4(aq) 6. HClO(aq) To write bases, you do the same as with any ionic compound. To write acids, first convert the acid name to the asscotiated ionic name Hydro________ic acid hydrogen _______ide ________ic acid hydrogen _______ate _________ous acid hydrogen _________ite Then write the formula as you learned previously. Ex 1. hydroiodic acid Ex 2. boric acid Ex 3. Nitrous acid Your turn. Write the formula for each of the following. 1. Hydrofluoric acid 2. Carbonic acid 3. Sulfurous acid 4. Hydrosulfuric acid 5. Perchloric acid 6. Silicic acid Worksheet #7 Page 314 Page 317 – 319 Neutralizations reaction – mixing an acid with a base (or vice versa) to temper (reduce) the effects of one or the other › Produces water and a salt Salt – an ionic compound that will conduct electricity when dissolved in water (aqueous) › Salts do NOT change the colour of litmus paper Generalized neutralization reaction: Acid + Base → Water + Salt For example, hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → water + sodium chloride Applications of neutralization reactions › Using lemon juice (acidic) to eliminate fish odors (base) › Using TUMS (basic) for heartburn (acidic) › Baking with baking soda (basic) and an acid (like lemon juice or buttermilk) to make your cakes rise › Cleaning up acid spills in the lab with baking soda (base) Page 296 The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. It ranges from 0 – 14, with 7 being neutral, less than 7 being acidic and greater than 7 being basic. The further from 7 you get in either direction results in a stronger acid/base. Indicators are used to test for pH.