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Chapter 12 Gender Lecture PowerPoint © W. W. Norton & Company, 2008 Mars and Venus Feminism 2 An intellectual, consciousness-raising movement based on the idea that women and men should be accorded equal opportunities and respect The movement’s chief goal could be described as getting people to understand that gender is an organizing principle of life Gender structures social relations on unequal ground, thus power is fundamentally at play when we talk about gender differences You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Mars and Venus 3 Sex is the natural or biological differences that distinguish males from females. Sexuality refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and behavior. Gender is a social construct that consists of a set of social arrangements that are built around sex. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sex: A Process in the Making 4 The study of gender involves looking very closely at the relationship between nature and nurture, and not assuming that one overshadows the other or that there is a clear line separating the two. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sex: A Process in the Making 5 It is common to think that there are only two sexes—male and female—and that all people fall into one group or the other, and indeed this is a way of imposing order in a chaotic world. But there is evidence to suggest that we need to embrace a more expansive definition of sex, one that goes beyond two rigid and distinct categories. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sex: A Process in the Making The ancient Greeks thought that there was one body, the male body, and that the female body was its inversion. This notion endured until the mideighteenth century. Essentialism and biological determinism assign gender and explain gender differences purely in terms of natural or biological attributes. 6 You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sex: A Process in the Making Are females/males different biologically; how do we all begin in the early stages of a fetus? Should we be more tolerant to individuals born neither male/female? 7 Sex: A Process in the Making Bases of biological sex Hormones DNA 8 Estrogen Androgen: testosterone and androsterone XY XX XXY Primary Sex Characteristics-necessary for reproduction Secondary Sex Characteristics-not necessary for reproduction Sex: A Process in the Making Male: XY, Androgen, penis, testes, hairy body, muscular Opposite sex, only two biological sexes? 9 Female: XX, Estrogen, vagina, ovaries, breast, hips Sex: A Process in the Making Is there a dividing line? Are men and Women opposite, different, unrelated? Female: XX, Estrogen, vagina, ovaries, breast, hips Male: XY, Androgen, penis, testes, hairy body, muscular Is the binary model used by doctors representative? 10 Sex: A Process in the Making Male: XY, XXY, Androgen, penis, testes, hairy body, muscular Intersexed: XY, XX, XXY, penis, vigina, ovaries, testes, breast, hairy body, hips, muscular Female: XX, XXY, Estrogen, vagina, ovaries, breast, hips 1. NO dividing line between males and females, NOT opposites but part of a continuum, NOT opposite ends but gradual differences from biological similar tissue. 2. Intersex is a natural biological phenomenon. How do we recognize it, just one new category called intersex like above? 11 Sex: A Process in the Making How many categories would be necessary to represent biological sex? How would categories be defined, who would make those decisions? Male Male Pseudo Intersexed Intersexed Are there still gray areas? 12 Female Pseudo Intersexed Female Gender: What Does It Take To Be a Woman (or a Man)? 13 We can expand our understanding of gender differences by examining other cultures to see how they construct gender (cross-cultural analysis) and by looking back in history to see how ideas about gender have changed. Some theorists claim that there is a hegemonic masculinity in society today—an ideal notion of a man that is so dominant, people aren’t even really aware of it. However, the notion of the ideal man has changed over time, once again proving that gender is not a rigid, unchanging category. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Gender: What Does It Take To Be a Woman (or a Man)? 14 Gender roles are sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one’s status as a male or female. However, there is much evidence showing that gender roles have more to do with social status than biology. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Gender: What Does It Take To Be a Woman (or a Man)? Gender roles, or behavioral norms assumed to accompany one’s status as female or male, vary over time and from place to place. Dominant definitions of femininity are always changing, as are notions of masculinity. 15 The Woman Question 16 A wide range of theories and approaches have been applied to the study of gender, including structural functionalism, psychoanalytic theory, conflict theory, microinteractionist theory, postmodern theory, middle-range theories, and ideas from black feminists. Each perspective has contributed to our understanding of gender differences and gender roles, and no doubt other theories or approaches will emerge in the future. When assessing these various approaches, it is important to ask how useful each one is for explaining people’s experiences and behavior. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. The Woman Question 17 Structural Functionalist Approach of studying gender: Assumes that gender differences exist to fulfill necessary functions in society Doesn’t allow for the possibility that other structures could fulfill the same function or for the fact that structures change throughout history You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. The Woman Question 18 Psychoanalytic Theories of studying gender: Focus on individualistic explanations for gender differences as opposed to societal ones Inherent in these theories is the notion that there are natural differences between men and women that dictate how they behave You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. The Woman Question Socialist feminists argue that all social relations, including relations between workers and the owners of the means of production, stem from unequal gender relations. Social constructionists argue that gender is a process in which people participate with every social interaction they have. 19 You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. The Woman Question 20 Black Feminists Pointed out that gender doesn’t function in a vacuum and that gender studies must take into account that there is no single category of women or men Indeed some women are not only more privileged than other women but are even more privileged than some men You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. The Woman Question 21 Postmodern theorists question the whole notion of “woman” as a separate, stable category and question the value and appropriateness of Western scholars applying their cultural logic to the study of nonWestern societies. Middle-range theories may be the most useful in addressing the complicated subject of gender because they connect people’s day-to-day experiences to larger social forces. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Conflict Theories 22 The intersection of capitalism and patriarchy make women economically dependent on men. Gender is the product of interaction, not a fixed identity. Black feminists have contended that early feminism was by, for and about white middleclass women. The Real World Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Conflict Theories Postmodern Theories Middle-Range Approach 23 Distinct categories of males and females, or biologic, is a uniquely Western perspective. The social and personal always depend on each other. The Real World Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sociology in the Bedroom Much like gender differences, sexual practices vary across time and place, which supports the notion that sexuality is as much a social construct as gender is. Some feminists see sexuality as an expression of the unequal distribution of power between men and women and argue that women don’t really choose heterosexuality but have it imposed on them by a male-dominated society. 24 You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Sociology in the Bedroom Homosexual, which refers to the social identity of a person who has sexual attraction to and/or relations with people of the same sex, is a concept or identity that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century. Michel Foucault relates the emergence of the homosexual identity to the development of states and scientific disciplines and a desire in both arenas to monitor and categorize people and behavior. Foucault also introduced the notion that self-surveillance is a form of social control. 25 You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Growing up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind 26 Studies show that gender inequality is rampant in schools. Boys and girls are treated differently by teachers and there are different expectations for their behavior and performance. The textbooks and other materials used in schools often reinforce gender stereotypes. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Growing up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind 27 While women are a significant part of the workforce today, they still face many challenges in the working world, including unequal pay, sexual harassment, sexism, tracking to certain kinds of jobs, the “feminization” of jobs, the glass ceiling, and more. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Growing up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind 28 When women do obtain positions that are typically dominated by men, they face enormous pressure. There is a sense that all women will be judged based on their performance, and they are often caught in a Catch-22 with regard to their behavior. If they “act just like a man,” they are seen as unfeminine and somehow unattractive; if they exhibit more feminine qualities, they are seen as “not tough enough.” You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Growing up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind 29 Men working in femaledominated fields don’t seem to face the same scrutiny and challenges. In fact, studies show that such men advance more quickly (on the “glass escalator”) than their female counterparts. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Growing up, Getting Ahead, and Falling Behind 30 “Opting out” refers to a perceived trend among mostly middle-class women of leaving the workforce to be full-time wives and mothers, in large part because of frustrations with the many obstacles they face on the job and the sense that they can find fulfillment in the home. You May Ask Yourself Copyright © 2008 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.