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12 Social and Personality Development in Adolescence This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: • any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; • preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; • any rental, lease, or lending of the program. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Theories of Social and Personality Development Psychoanalytic Perspectives • Freud – Genital Stage • “Last stage” of personality development • Includes both adolescents and adults • Channel libido into a healthy sexual relationship © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Psychoanalytic Perspectives Erickson: Identity versus Role Confusion Stage • Identity is a sense of self-continuity • Reflects understanding of one’s unique traits and how they manifest across ages and social roles • Identity crisis – Identification with peer groups protects against emotional turmoil • Role confusion results from the inability to have an integrated view of self – Adolescence brings new demands and roles © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement • Identity formation has two key parts – Crisis • Period of decision-making when old values and choices are reexamined – Commitment • Follow some specific role, value, goal, or ideology © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement Identity Statuses • Identity Achievement • Moratorium • Foreclosure • Identity Diffusion • Quest for personal identity can continue through the lifespan © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.1 Marcia’s Identity Statuses © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Self-Understanding • More abstract definition of psychological self – Comprised of enduring traits, beliefs, personal philosophy, and moral standards – Able to see oneself in different roles • Academic self-concepts come from internal comparisons and external comparisons • Social self-concepts predict behavior • Appearance less important in later adolescence © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.2 Changes in Teens’ Self-Descriptions © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.2 • • • • Self-Concept and Personality Self-Esteem Sense of global self-worth Overall, self-esteem rises through adolescence High self-esteem associated with positive developmental outcomes such as good grades or resisting peer pressure Boys more likely than girls to either have continuous high self-esteem or rising selfesteem during adolescence © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Gender Role Identity • Adolescents more often now understand sex roles as social conventions • More flexible • Sandra Bem’s typology – – – – Masculine Feminine Androgynous Undifferentiated © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.3 Bem’s Gender Role Categories © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.3 Ethnic Identity • Self-identification as a unique individual AND • Self-identification as a member of their specific group – Often poorly supported by dominant culture – Family support and teaching helps form a strong sense of ethnic identity • Jean Phinney’s 3 stages of ethnic identity formation – Unexamined ethnic identity – Ethnic identity search – Clear ethnic identity © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Bi-Racial Teens • Achieving identity may be more complex • Factors that can interact with the teen’s personality: – – – – Hazing and emotional trauma Family variables Neighborhood variables Presence of other salient identities © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Immigrant Teens • Possible clashes between parents’ cultural values and the new culture – Communal versus individualism for AsianAmerican teens – May feel guilty about individualist strivings • Many such teens develop a bicultural identity © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning • Preconventional reasoning – Judgments are based on positive or negative consequences to the child • Stage 1 – punishment and obedience orientation • Stage 2 – individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning • Conventional reasoning – Judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the individual belongs. • Stage 3 – Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity • Stage 4 – Social system and conscience (“Law and Order”) © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Moral Development Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning • Postconventional reasoning – Judgments based on emergence of a personal reasoning and principles • Stage 5 – Social contracts orientation • Stage 6 – Universal ethical principles © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.4 Colby & Kohlberg’s Longitudinal Study of Moral Reasoning © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.5 Causes and Consequences of Moral Development • Age and corresponding cognitive development needed to progress from stage to stage • Decline of egocentrism is critical • Role-taking improves an adolescent’s ability to reason from another’s perspective • Support from the social environment needed to sustain moral reasoning • Growth of moral reasoning associated with increases in adolescent prosocial behaviors and decreases in antisocial behavior © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Culture and Moral Reasoning • Approach may be too narrow to be considered universal • Non-Western cultures do not fit well with Kohlberg’s approach – Although justice is an important moral concept around the world, – Justice does not supercede all other moral considerations in non-Western cultures © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Emotions: Nancy Eisenberg • Empathy – ability to identify with others’ emotions both cause and consequence of moral development • Age-related and individual differences in ability to regulate emotions should be considered • Inability to control emotions triggers antisocial behaviors © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Emotions: Carol Gilligan • Ethics based on caring for others and on maintaining social relationships are important • Justice and care are two distinct orientations • Girls are more likely to reason based on care orientation, boys relatively more on justice • Recent research of sex differences suggests North American bias © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Reasoning and Behavior • Moral reasoning and moral behavior correlated but relationship far from perfect • Neither adolescents nor adults reason the same way in every situation—situational factors may determine actual behavior • Moral dilemmas featuring celebrities evoke less moral reasoning among teens © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior Delinquency • Adolescent behavior that breaks laws • Delinquents lack empathy (for parents, victims, etc) • Are behind peers in moral reasoning because of deficits in role-taking skills • Childhood-onset problems more serious and more often persist – Temperament and personality play a role. – Parents who fail at early attempts to control bad behavior may worsen the behaviors – Delinquent adolescents may exhibit serious disturbances in thinking • Adolescent-onset problems typically reflect peer-group influences © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Social Relationships Parents • Adolescents have two tasks: establish autonomy and maintain relatedness • Conflicts with parents increase but attachment still high – Center around everyday issues, chores, appearance • Individual traits and cultural factors affect the degree and meaning of parent–teen conflict. © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Parents • Attachment – Remains strong during adolescence – Teenager’s sense of well-being or happiness is more strongly correlated with the quality of attachment to parents than to peers – Strong attachments associated with academic success and good peer relations © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 12.6 Sources of Support for Adolescents © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Friendships • Friendships become increasingly intimate – Share more inner feelings and secrets – More knowledgeable about each other’s feelings • More stable than those of younger children • Electronic communication more important, such as email – Thus today’s teens have wider range of friendship than earlier generations did © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Friendships PLEASE NOTE TYPO P. 359 “insignificant” • Teens vary considerably in the interpersonal skills needed to maintain friendships – Important to learn negotiation and conflict skills – Reasons for ending friendships reflect differences in rate of development of social skills. • Shared interests and activities continue to be important © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Peer Groups • Relatively stable in adolescence • Share values, behaviors, identity status • Teens report that when explicit peer pressure is exerted, it is likely towards positive rather than negative activities © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Changes in peer group structure • Clique – 4 to 6 young people who are strongly attached to one another – Early years cliques are same-sex • Crowds – larger sets that include males and females – Break down into heterosexual cliques and then into loose associations of couples – Crowds are popular between 13 and 15 • Reputation-based group – teen identifies with group either by choice or by peer designation © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Romantic Relationships: Heterosexual Teens • Proceed at a faster pace for girls than for boys • Skills gained in relating to other-sex peers in friendships and mixed groups prepare them for romantic relationships • Social competence in a variety of relationships prepares teens to move to romantic relationships – Physical sexuality coupled with skills in personal intimacy – The sense of being in love is an important factor in adolescent dating patterns © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Relationships with Peers Romantic Relationships: Homosexual Teens • Become aware of same-sex attraction at about ages 11 or 12 • May initially experiment with heterosexual relationships • Boys act on same-sex attraction earlier than girls do • Social support from clubs and extracurricular activities is important for gay and lesbian teens © 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers