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English I EOC Grammar Review Fall 2001 Take notes…this will be on your final exam! Capitalization Names of most historical events, eras, calendar terms, and religious terms Titles of literary works and publications, works of art, and musical compositions Civil War; Great Depression; Age of Reason; Tuesday; March; Thanksgiving Day; Allah; Mormon; Hinduism; Christmas; Talmud Beloved; Seventeen; The Thinker; American Gothic; Schindler’s List; “Kiss from a Rose” Capitalization Capitalize proper nouns specific names of school courses Capitalize proper adjectives (adjectives formed by proper nouns). Philosophy II Central American governments; Elizabethan collar; Indian spices; Jewish synagogue Capitalization Geographical terms and regions or localities Kenya; Tennessee; Lake Champlain; Fifth Avenue; Far East Names of planets and other heavenly bodies Venus; Andromeda; Sirius; Io; Crab Nebula Names of ships, planes, trains, and spacecraft HMS Queen Elizabeth II; the Spruce Goose; Twentieth Century Limited; Challenger Colon To introduce a list (especially after a statement that uses such words as these, the following, or as follows) and to introduce material that explains, illustrates, or restates preceding material Noted American aviators include these: Wiley Post, Charles Lindbergh, and Amelia Earhart. Nathan must be feeling better: he asked to borrow my tennis racket. Hint: You must have a complete sentence before a colon. Colon To introduce a long or formal quotation In statements of precise time, in biblical chapter and verse references, and after business-letter salutations Winston Churchill said this about public speaking: “If you have an important point to make, don’t try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. . . .” 2:34 A.M. 2 Kings 11:12 Dear Mr. Fleming: Ladies and Gentlemen: Semicolon To separate main clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction Hawaii’s climate is mild all year round; many travelers choose to visit the islands in summer. To separate main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or by an expression such as for example or that is Hawaiian muumuus and aloha shirts are often colorful; that is, they are brightly patterned. Semicolon To separate the items in a series when these items contain commas To separate two main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction when such clauses already contain several commas Hawaiian words familiar to many mainlanders include luau, which means “feast”; aloha, which can mean “love,” “welcome,” or “farewell”; and hula, which means “dance.” Travel ads often focus on Oahu’s attractions, such as Waikiki Beach, Pearl Harbor, and Diamond Head; but the state has many other interesting sites. Comma Between the main clauses of a compound To separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series I recognize her, but I can’t think of her name. Ayala is a member of the Debaters’ Club, the Glee Club, and the swimming team. Comma Between coordinate modifiers To set off interjections, parenthetical expressions, and conjunctive adverbs She is a smart, athletic student. Max is, in fact, a sports fanatic. Comma To set off long introductory prepositional phrases (you must have more than one) To set off introductory phrases After several days of constant exposure to the sun, your skin will be dry and leathery. Although Petra can read English well, her spoken English is not very fluent. Comma To set off nonessential words, clauses, and phrases Those orange and black birds, unless I am mistaken, are Baltimore orioles. The prize winners, beaming, rushed to the stage. Hint: If you can take out a phrase or clause, and it remains a complete sentence and doesn’t change the meaning of the sentence, you will need a pair of commas. Comma To set off an introductory Phrase To speak frankly, I don’t care for that design. To set off quotations in dialogue “Yesterday,” announced Kayla, “I won the debate.” Remember: Do not use a comma with only one introductory prepositional phrase. Comma To separate the various parts of an address, a geographical term, or a date After the salutation of an informal letter and after the closing of all letters St. Louis, Missouri Saturday, July 4 December 7, 1941 Cambridge, MA 02138 Dear Mom and Dad, Sincerely, Comma To set off parts of a reference that direct the reader to the exact source To set off words or names used in direct address and in tag questions This rule is found in The Chicago Manual of Style, chapter 10, paragraph 83. Keon, could you tutor me in algebra? You’ve never had chicken pox, have you? Quotation Marks To enclose a direct quotation, as follows: When a quotation is interrupted, use two sets of quotation marks. Speaking of another writer’s novel, Gore Vidal remarked, “This is not at all bad, except as prose.” “All the really good ideas I ever had,” said artist Grant Wood, “came to me while I was milking a cow.” Quotation Marks To enclose a direct quotation, as follows: – Use single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation. – In writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph and use a new set of quotation marks every time the speaker changes. Joe Namath, the legendary quarterback, said, “Till I was 13, I thought my name was ‘Shut Up.’” “Dad, may I borrow five dollars?” I asked. “What for?” Dad replied. “Um, actually, it’s for your Father’s Day present,” I answered sheepishly. Quotation Marks To enclose titles of short works, such as stories, poems, essays, articles, chapters, and songs To enclose unfamiliar slang terms and unusual expressions “Barometer Soup” is a song on that Jimmy Buffett CD. What does the slang word “dis” mean? Tom Wolfe coined the expression “radical chic.” Italics For titles of books, lengthy poems, plays, films, television series, paintings and sculptures, long musical compositions, court cases, names of newspapers and magazines, ships, trains, airplanes, and spacecraft. Italicize and capitalize articles (a, an, the) at the beginning of a title only when they are part of the title. Italics work the same way as underlining words. Beowulf [long poem] Biography [television series] The Potato Eaters [painting] Appalachian Spring [long musical composition] Ebony [magazine] Eagle [spacecraft] Spirit of St. Louis [airplane] The Old Man and the Sea [book] the Boston Globe [newspaper] Apostrophe to create a possessive form, as follows: – Add an apostrophe and -s to all singular indefinite pronouns, singular nouns, plural nouns not ending in -s, and compound nouns. Add only an apostrophe to a plural noun that ends in -s. nobody’s fault New Mexico’s climate children’s welfare mass’s density baby-sitter’s duties seat belt’s buckle flowers’ petals Wongs’ party Apostrophe To create a possessive form, as follows: – If two or more entities possess something jointly, use the possessive form for the last entity named. If they possess it individually, use the possessive form for each entity’s name. Aunt Ellie and Uncle Ed’s house Microsoft’s and Apple’s operating systems Apostrophe To express amounts of money or time that modify a noun In place of omitted letters or numerals a twelve dollars’ savings; a two weeks’ delay [You can use a hyphenated adjective instead: a two-week delay.] can’t [cannot] the crash of ’29 Use a contraction only with it+is=it’s (not the possessive its. Numbers and Numerals In general, spell out cardinal and ordinal numbers that can be written in one or two words. I am one of twentynine students in Ms. Chung’s algebra class. For the hundredth time, please turn the radio off. Numbers and Numerals Spell out any number that occurs at the beginning of a sentence. Six thousand five hundred tickets were sold for the festival on Saturday. Voice The voice of a verb shows whether the subject performs the action or receives the action of a verb. A verb is in the active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action. (Robert Burns wrote this poem.) A verb is in the passive voice when the action is performed on the subject. (This poem was written by Robert Burns.) Passive voice is incorrect!!! Accept/Except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive” or “to agree to.” Except is occasionally used as a verb, but more often it is used as a preposition meaning “but.” Please accept my apologies. All of the officers, except one, attended the meeting. Affect/Effect Affect is a verb meaning “to cause a change in; to influence.” Effect may be a noun or a verb. As a noun it means “result.” As a verb it means “to bring about or accomplish.” Exercise will affect your fitness level. Exercise will have a beneficial effect on your fitness level. Exercise will effect an improvement in your fitness level. All ready/Already All ready is an adjective phrase that means “completely ready.” Already is an adverb that means “before” or “by this time.” The climbers were all ready for their final ascent, but the storm was already upon them. All right/Alright The expression all right should be written as two words. Were the children all right after their frightening experience? All together/Altogether Use all together to mean “in a group.” Use the adverb altogether to mean “completely” or “on the whole.” The scholarship winners stood all together on the stage. They seemed altogether thrilled with their awards. Amount/Number Use amount to refer to things that cannot be counted. Use number to refer to things that can be counted. This recipe calls for a large amount of pepper. This recipe calls for a large number of eggs. Beside/Besides Beside means “at the side of.” Besides usually means “in addition to.” The prime minister sat beside the president on the plane. Besides playing hockey, the boys compete on the track team. Between/Among Use between to compare one person or thing with one other person or thing or with an entire group. Use among to show a relationship in which more than two persons or things are considered as a group. When the twins dress alike, I can’t see any difference between them. There is quite a difference between Monet’s painting and the others in the exhibit. The members will settle the issue among themselves. Can’t hardly/Can’t scarcely These terms are considered double negatives because hardly and scarcely by themselves have a negative meaning. Therefore, avoid using hardly and scarcely with not or -n’t. Our entire class can hardly fit into the new classroom. Without my glasses, I can scarcely see the movie screen. Could of, Might of, Must of, Should of, Would of After the words could, might, must, should, or would, use the helping verb have, not the preposition of. I don’t know what could have gone wrong with that dishwasher. We must have looked pretty silly covered with all those soapsuds! Fewer/Less Use fewer when referring to nouns that can be counted. Use less when referring to nouns that cannot be counted. Less may also be used with figures that are seen as single amounts or single quantities. There were fewer snowstorms this winter than last. Could we have a bit less noise, please? I paid less than $10.00 for these jeans. [The amount of money is treated as a single sum, not as individual dollars.] Good/Well Use good as an adjective. Well may be used as an adverb of manner telling how ably or adequately something is done. Well also may be used as an adjective meaning “in good health”. Your hair looks good that way. [adjective after a linking verb] Josie did well on her final exam. [adverb of manner] Grandpa says he doesn’t feel well enough to travel. [adjective meaning “in good health”] Lay/Lie Lay means “to put” or “to place”; it takes a direct object. Lie means “to recline” or “to be positioned”; it never takes an object. Lay your towel under that beach umbrella. The dog likes to lie on the sunny deck. Raise/Rise The verb raise means “to cause to move upward”; it always takes an object. The verb rise means “to go up”; it is intransitive and does not take an object. I always raise the shades immediately after I wake up. The price of swimsuits will rise just before summer begins. Sit/Set Sit means “to place oneself in a sitting position.” It rarely takes an object. Set means “to place” or “to put,” and it usually takes an object. When set is used to mean “the sun is going down,” it does not take an object. Please sit in that chair. Please set down that remote control. What time will the sun set tonight? Than/Then Than is a conjunction. Use it in comparisons or to show exception. The adverb then usually refers to time and can mean “at that time,” “soon afterward,” “the time mentioned,” “at another time,” “for that reason,” or “in that case.” I know that Rachel is a better swimmer than I am. I would rather be anywhere else than here. My parents didn’t even know one another then. I went home and then stopped by Dad’s office. I had almost finished my errands by then. If you can solve the puzzle, then please speak up. Who/Whom Use the nominative pronoun who for subjects. Who caught that line drive? [subject of the verb] Did he mention who won first prize? [subject of the noun clause who won first prize] Who did you say will be working at the refreshment stand? [subject of the verb will be working] Who/Whom Use the objective pronoun whom for the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal or for the object of a preposition. Whom are you choosing as a partner? [direct object of the verb are choosing] Whom did you hear Geoff tutored in math? [direct object of the verb tutored] Naomi told whom my secret? [indirect object] From whom did you borrow this book? [object of the preposition from] Sentence Fragment Solution A: Combine the fragment with another sentence. Add a comma to set off nonessential clauses. Tim scored the goal, although he was injured in the attempt. My term paper is about Robert Frost, who is my favorite poet. Run-on Sentence Solution A: Replace the comma with an end mark of punctuation, such as a period or a question mark, and begin the new sentence with a capital letter. We went canoeing last weekend. My shoulders still ache. Run-on Sentence Solution C: Add a coordinating conjunction after the comma. We went canoeing last weekend, and my shoulders still ache. Run-on Sentence Solution A: Separate the main clauses with an end mark of punctuation, such as a period or a question mark, and begin the new sentence with a capital letter. The museum has a new exhibit of modern art. We haven’t seen it yet. Run-on Sentence Solution B: Separate the main clauses with a semicolon. The museum has a new exhibit of modern art; we haven’t seen it yet. Run-on Sentence Solution: Add a comma before the coordinating conjunction to separate the two main clauses. We washed cars all day, and then we went out for Chinese food. Rule of thumb: It often helps to have someone else read your writing to see if it is clear. Since you know what the sentences are supposed to mean, you might sometimes missbutton the need punctuation. Press the mouse or Space Bar tofor see an example. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: Ignore a prepositional phrase that comes between a subject and a verb. Make the verb agree with the subject, which is never the object of a preposition. The bus with the band members leaves at noon. The peaks of the mountain range glisten with snow. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: In an inverted sentence, look for the subject after the verb. Then make sure the verb agrees with the subject. Outside the mall stand six men. Over there are several more. Rule of thumb: Reversing the order of an inverted the mouse button or Space Bar to see examples. sentence mayPress help you decide on the correct verb form: “Several more are over there.” Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution A: If the collective noun refers to a group as a whole, use a singular verb. The committee meets at 3:30 every Wednesday afternoon. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: Make the verb agree with the subject that is closer to it. Neither the dictionaries nor the thesaurus is on the shelves. Neither the thesaurus nor the dictionaries are on the shelves. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: Use a singular verb when a, each, or every precedes a compound subject. Every student and teacher has passed through these halls. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: Certain expressions, such as as well as, in addition to, and together with, do not change the number of the subject. Ignore these expressions between a subject and its verb. Make the verb agree with the subject. My mother, as well as her brothers, was born in Sweden. Lack of Subject Verb Agreement Solution: Determine whether the indefinite pronoun is singular or plural, and make the verb agree. Some indefinite pronouns are singular–another, anyone, everyone, one, each, either, neither, anything, everything, something, and somebody. Some are plural–both, many, few, several, and others. Some can be singular or plural– some, all, any, more, most, and none–depending on the noun to which they refer. Everyone enjoys mysteries. None of the top-seeded players are in the finals. Lack of Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement Solution: Another, any, every, each, one, either, neither, anything, everything, something, and somebody are singular and therefore require singular personal pronouns, even when followed by a prepositional phrase that contains a plural noun. Neither of the girls remembered to bring her gym clothes. Rule of thumb: To help you remember that Press the mouse button or Space Bar to see an example. pronouns such as each, either, and neither are singular, think each one, either one, and neither one. Shift in Verb Tense Solution: When two or more events occur at the same time, be sure to use the same verb tense to describe each event. The astronomers focus on the comet and compare observations. Justine glided onto the ice as the audience burst into applause. Shift in Verb Tense Solution: When two events have occurred at different times in the past, shift from the past tense to the past perfect tense to indicate that one action began and ended before another past action began. By the time help arrived, we had been stranded on the ledge for hours. Rule of thumb: When you need to use more than one verb tense in a sentence, it may help to first jot down the sequence of events you’re writing about. Press the mouse button or Space Bar to see happened an example. Be clear in your mind which action first. Incorrect Verb Tense or Form Solution: Add -ed to a regular verb to form the past tense and the past participle. Last year my sister worked on a ranch for the summer. Has she decided what she would like to do this year? Misplaced or Dangling Modifier Solution: Modifiers that modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a sentence are called misplaced modifiers. Move the misplaced phrase as close as possible to the word or words it modifies. In her new outfit, Jenita got many compliments from her friends. We found the dazed and terrified raccoon by the side of the road. The birdwatchers who had binoculars spotted a yellow wagtail. Missing or Misplaced Possessive Apostrophe Solution: Use an apostrophe and -s to form the possessive of a singular noun, even one that ends in -s. The duchess’s jewels were stolen by that airline’s luggage handler. Missing Commas in a Series Missing Commas with Nonessential Elements Solution: Set off the interjection or parenthetical expression with commas. Gee, that was a beautiful ceremony. Your brother, by the way, has been waiting for you for an hour. Missing Commas with Nonessential Elements Solution: Determine whether the clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence. If it is not essential, set off the clause with commas. Oklahoma, which is rich in oil, suffered a bad drought in the 1930s. ie and ei Many writers find the rules for certain combinations of letters, like ie and ei, difficult to remember. One helpful learning strategy is to develop a rhyme to remember a rule. Look at the following rhyme for the ie and ei rule. Forming plurals Forming plurals Difficult Subjects Remember that you will never, never, never find the subject of a sentence in a prepositional phrase. Example: Each of the boys and girls gives money to charity. What is the subject? Answer: each Non-words These are NOT words: hisself theirself theirselves themself The correct words are themselves and himself. Parallelism Three items listed must all be the same part of speech, the same type of phrase, or the same type of clause. Incorrect: I like to run, to play, and singing. Correct: I like to run, to play and to sing. The End Good Luck…I’m sure you will all be fine!!!