Download modern marketing theory and practice

MODERN MARKETING THEORY AND PRACTICE:
DEVELOPING A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE
BY
RICE P. YORK, JR.
JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI
MARCH 10, 1995
INTRODUCTION
Every academic discipline has a body of theory and knowledge that is generally accepted by
those in the discipline. The theories and knowledge that constitute this body incorporate
certain underlying principles and values that guide and direct the activities of those who
practice in the discipline. In those subject areas that relate directly to a particular profession,
direction will also come from practitioners in the discipline. In some fields, such as law,
medicine, real estate, and accounting this practitioner guidance will be formalized through
professional associations, codes of ethics, and specific standards or operational criteria.
The relevance of the preceding on the educational process within the discipline at any
college or university is threefold. First, education in every discipline should include the
basic theories and knowledge on which the discipline is based. Second, values and other
standards that apply to the discipline should be covered. Third, students should be taught
to apply the first two by analyzing new practices, theories, and alternatives in light of
existing theories, knowledge, values, and standards.
Although the approach just outlined may be sufficient, and perhaps all that is legal in
secular universities, it is not sufficient for institutions that profess to offer some form of
Christian higher education. Indeed those who teach in Christian institutions are called to an
additional task that is probably more demanding and that is definitely more worthy. This
task is the integration of the underlying beliefs and values of the discipline with the
underlying beliefs and values of Christianity.
Accordingly the purpose of this paper is to develop a faith learning perspective on the
marketing discipline. In order to accomplish this objective the concept of faith-learning
integration in general is first explored. Secondly, a Christian perspective on marketing is
developed by considering the basic presuppositions of marketing in light of a Christian
world view. The latter is broken down into two subtopics. The general nature and
overall philosophy of marketing are first examined for harmony or conflict with Christian
views and thought. Several important scriptural themes that relate to marketing theory and
practice are then considered.
FAITH-LEARNING INTEGRATION
During the past several years there has been increased interest in redefining the role of
the Christian College in higher education. This interest has arisen from the desire of
Christian colleges to articulate and teach what is often called a Christian world view. In
order to implement this objective Christian faculty have been challenged to integrate faith and
learning in their individual academic disciplines.
What is Integration?
If the preceding is to actually take place then faculty must have a clear idea of exactly what
is meant by integrating faith and learning and how it relates to a Christian world view. William
Hasker (1992) describes faith learning integration as “a scholarly project whose goal is to
ascertain and to develop integral relationships which exist between the Christian faith and
human knowledge, particularly as expressed in the various academic disciplines.” Hasker also
offers reflections on what faith learning is not. Specifically it is not the usage of academic
disciplines to illustrate spiritual truths, nor is it the cultivation of personal Christian living on
the part of faculty members. Integration is not a public relations or promotional program to be
used to convince others of the “Christian goodness” of the institution. It is a “scholarly task”,
and it is a specific responsibility of Christian educators.
Given that integration is a scholarly task, what exactly will this task involve? Basically,
integration means to bring together – thus, the task at hand is to bring together the Christian
faith as reflected in scripture with the specific academic discipline. According to Harold
Heie (1994) this will involve an examination of the basic presuppositions of the discipline
in light of the basic teachings of Christianity. The goal is to identify points of conflict or
harmony between the teachings and values of Christianity and the discipline. Or as David
Wolf (1987) states, “genuine integration occurs when an assumption or concern can be
shown to be internally shared by (integral to) to both the Judeo-Christian vision and an
academic discipline.”
What is a Christian World View?
This last statement brings us to consideration of what is meant by the term “Christian
world view.” Although the term world view is often used its exact meaning is frequently
not specified and may vary considerably. Brian Walsh (1992) notes that although
“evangelicals are talking more about world views this does not necessarily mean they
are all talking about the same thing, however.”
The answer to the world view question and its implications are specifically addressed
by Brian J. Walsh and J. Richard Middleton (1984) in their book The Transforming
Vision: Shaping a Christian World View. In regard to the general notion of a world
view, Christian or otherwise, Walsh and Middleton consider world views to be social or
communal facets of life that are anchored in culture and that like culture “never belong
to just one individual.” A given world view provides a model of the world that
“stipulates how the world ought to be, and it thus advises how its adherents ought to
conduct themselves in the world.” World views shape our existence as we interpret the
world and life through the lens of the particular world view. In essence world views are
ways of looking at life and the world along with the values set forth by a particular way
of thinking. This world view will be an important element of a given culture and will
shape behavior in that it sets forth values that define good and bad, right and wrong.
A Christian world view is different from all other world views in that it is based on
scripture. Walsh (1992) offers the following as his first of fourteen theses for developing
a Christian world view: “A Christian world view is only Christian insofar as it is biblical.”
Thus, a Christian world view will be based on the values and ways of thinking contained in
scripture. The faith-integration challenge is to consider the underling values and ways of
thinking in the academic discipline (presuppositions) in light of the underling values and
ways of thinking contained in the Bible. In short we are searching for points of agreement
or conflict between the world view of our discipline and the world view of Jesus Christ.
MARKETING AND A CHRISTIAN WORLD VIEW
In order to develop a Christian perspective on marketing the underlying presuppositions of
marketing must be integrated with the underlying presuppositions of a Christian world
view. This will be carried out by first looking at the overall philosophy of marketing.
Integration will then be undertaken by considering marketing in light of a Christian world
view as expressed by related Biblical passages.
Marketing as Business
A useful starting point for this task is to evaluate marketing as a form of the practice of
business in general. Marketing is one of the major functional areas covered in the
standard business curriculum – the other major areas being management, economics,
accounting, and finance. It is interesting to note that students often arrive on campus
with a negative perception of business in general, and business practitioners in particular.
After all, the businessmen (and women) depicted in movies, on television, and in music
and literature are almost always portrayed as greedy, dishonest, and regular practitioners
of almost every sin imaginable. And isn’t the goal of every business man or woman to
get rich? Didn’t Jesus himself say “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a
needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.” (Mark 10: 25)
From the preceding it is apparent that one of the first tasks that must be attempted is
an examination of the compatibility of business in general with Christianity. Chewning,
Eby , and Roels (1984) note in Business Through the Eyes of Faith that a certain amount
of tension between business and Christians has existed over the years. The authors cite
statements such as St. Jerome’s “A merchant can seldom if ever please God” and St.
Augustine’s “Business is in itself evil” as evidence of this tension.
It should be noted, however, that the issue is not whether business is compatible with
the values and beliefs of famous Christians. To the contrary, the issue that needs to be
addressed is the extent to which the practice of business is compatible with the word of
God as contained in scripture. In response to this question Chewning, Eby, and Roels
(1984) suggest that business is part of God’s work in the world by which we as
individuals and communities are to work and serve one another. Business is the primary
means by which we carry out our dominion over creation. Business can be conducted in
a way that is both ethical and successful, although being ethical will not guarantee success.
An additional point is that the Bible never speaks of business activity business as inherently
unworthy or evil. Indeed, the vast majority of the Lord’s servants portrayed in the Bible
engaged in some sort of trade or business. Farming, fishing, trade, medicine and carpentry are
but a few of the business activities viewed as worthy and honorable in scripture.
The Bible does, however, have a lot to say about how business should be practiced.
Several themes are evident and include honesty/dishonesty, justice, the worthiness of
certain types of goals and objectives, and the value of work. The relevance of these themes
to specific aspects of the practice of marketing will be discussed at the appropriate points in
the remainder of this paper.
Marketing and the Modern Marketing Concept
The marketing discipline as taught in colleges and universities and as generally practiced
in today’s business environment is quite different from the public’s perception. Many
people (including beginning marketing students) think of marketing only as selling and
promotion (Kotler and Armstrong 1989). Although marketing definitely includes selling
and promotion these activities represent only one part of the overall marketing program or
process. This is evidenced by the definition of marketing offered by the American
Marketing Association which follows:
Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing,
promotion, and distribution of goods and services to created exchanges
that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.
Planning and executing emphasizes the deliberate control that should take place in
marketing. The conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of goods and services
relates to the marketing mix which constitutes the core elements on which a marketing
strategy is based. Individual and organizational objectives are generally of a financial
nature such as increasing sales or making a profit.
Marketing can also be thought of as an orientation or philosophy that is often termed the
modern marketing concept. It is modern in the sense that is has largely replaced two earlier
approaches (Boone and Kurtz 1994). These approaches were the production orientation,
which emphasized cost control and efficiency, and the sales orientation, which emphasized
the need to overcome consumer resistance to purchase by using promotional techniques
like advertising and personal selling.
The modern marketing concept, in contrast to the previous two, focuses not on the needs of
the seller but rather on the needs and wants of the buyer. The modern marketing concept
holds that those firms which do the best job of satisfying consumer needs and wants will be
most successful. The marketing process thus involves the identification of consumer needs and
wants, development of products and services to satisfy those needs and wants, development of
products and services to satisfy those needs and wants, and finally communication with the
consumer about the nature of the good or service and how it can satisfy related needs and
wants. In short, companies such as Wal-Mart in retailing, McDonalds in fast food, and Apple
in computers achieve their success by giving people what they want – not by tricking them
into buying something they really don’t want.
Marketing and A Christian World View
Given that the preceding is what marketing is all about, in what way is it compatible
with the Christian world view? In regard to the overall philosophy and general nature of
marketing there is significant scriptural support for the practice of marketing. This
support is especially apparent in regard to the consumer service orientation mentioned
previously for the modern marketing concept. This is to say, the fundamental, underlying
presupposition of the marketing concept is that the key to success lies in the satisfaction of
consumer needs and wants. In contrast to the production and promotion orientations, the
modern marketing approach does not ask what can the customer do for us, but rather asks
what can we do for the customer.
It is a given fact of life that God’s people have needs and wants for food, clothing,
shelter and transportation. To the extent that marketing focuses on the needs and wants of
others, marketing is able to minister as Christ did to both physical and spiritual needs
(Mulford 1992). In short, the modern marketing approach is one of service and servanthood. As Christ said “whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant,
and whoever wants to be first must be your slave – just as the Son of Man did not come to be
served, but to serve . . .” (Matthew 20:27-28).
The idea of servanthood in marketing has become increasingly apparent over the past
few years with numerous books, articles, and seminars featuring themes such as “the
customer is king”, “serving your customer”, “satisfying the customer”, and “total quality
management (TQM).” The focus on consumer needs and wants is also supported by the
second of the two great commandments: “Love your neighbor as yourself “ (Matthew 22:39).
In short, by loving our neighbor, by caring about his needs and wants, and by developing
products and services to satisfy those needs and wants we can comply with marketing and
Biblical principles.
A word of caution is in order as the word “can” is a key component of the preceding and
serves to convey the idea of possibility or potential for compatibility between the values of
marketing and scripture. In short, although there is no inherent conflict between marketing
and a Christian world view, the possibility of conflict still remains. This potential conflict
concerns both the nature of the needs and wants that will be satisfied as well as the
motivations and objectives for satisfying them.
This situation exists because the marketing concept itself places no limitations on the
needs and wants that are to be satisfied, other than that the marketing process should
satisfy organizational and individual objectives. The obvious problem is that either the
needs and wants or the relevant objectives may be in conflict with a Christian world view.
Some people need and want to lie, cheat, and steal, or commit adultery, fraud, and even
murder. Should marketing satisfy these needs? Firms may want to circumvent the free
market process by forming economic cartels or creating a monopoly market so that the
economic weakness of others can be exploited. Is the creation of monopoly power a
valid objective?
Scriptural Themes
Needless to say the Christian world view has a lot to say about the answers to these
sorts of questions. The relevance of the Christian world view is manifested in several
scriptural themes that relate to marketing theory and practice. Obviously any aspect of
marketing that violates a specific commandment will be in conflict with Biblical principles.
This is true regardless of whether the violation occurs on the part of the marketer or the
consumer.
From a more general perspective, true servanthood and love for neighbor may very
well result in not satisfying some needs and wants, in particular those that have negative social or
physical consequences. Two passages come to mind. First, from the Apostle Paul we get
the prescription “Let us therefore make every effort to do what leads to peace and to
mutual edification” (Romans 14:19). We also have the prohibition “It is better not to eat
meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall” (Romans 14:21).
Or as expressed most poignantly by Jesus Christ in Luke 17:1-2:
Things that cause people to sin are bound to come, but woe to that person through
whom they come. It would be better for him to be thrown into the sea with a
millstone tied around his neck than for him to cause one of these little ones to sin.
Scripture also speaks to the related subject of individual and organizational objectives.
Goals and objectives are important in that they function as motivation and control tools
that serve to guide and direct marketing activity. Needless to say, the primary marketing
objectives for most businesses and individuals will be of a financial nature. These objectives
are often expressed in terms of “making money”, “making a profit”, “acquiring wealth”, or the
increasingly popular “enhancing shareholder value.”
The financial objectives just mentioned are often viewed by students (and even some
religious authorities) as incompatible with Christian beliefs and ethical principles. Again,
it is what the Bible says that matters, and the Bible has a lot to say about money and wealth.
One of the most often quoted passages in this regard is First Timothy 6:10 “For the love of
money is the root of all kinds of evil.” Note that this passage does not say that money is
evil. In fact, it does not even say the love of money is evil. What it does say is that the
love of money is the root of evil, or stated differently, the love of money often leads to
evil. Just as a plant feeds through its physical roots, so evil feeds through the root of
money. It is not the money itself that is evil, but rather the how and why it is acquired.
In regard to this last point, it is important to note that there is ample scriptural support
for the profit motive and the acquisition of wealth. However, it is also apparent that scripture
places substantial limitations on the place of monetary objectives in our life and on the
ways in which wealth may be acquired.
Support for the making of a profit is offered by the parable of the talents (Matthew 25:
14-30). The two servants who invested earned a profit and were praised by their master.
The servant who did not invest for fear of loss earned no profit and was cast out: “For
every one who has will be given more, and he will have an abundance. Whoever does not have,
even what he has will be taken from him.” (Matthew 25:29).
The acquisition of wealth and material goods is supported by Proverbs 21:20 which promotes
saving: “In the house of the wise are store of choice food and oil, but a foolish man devours all
he has.” Patience and diligence in acquiring wealth are promoted by Proverbs 27:18: “He
who tends a fig tree will eat its fruit” and Proverbs 28:19: “He who works his land will have
abundant food.”
Although the preceding recognizes the hand of man in acquiring wealth, scripture also
asserts the ultimate hand of God. Thanksgiving and praise as well as the dependence of
man are reflected in Ecclesiastes 5:19: “Moreover, when God gives any man wealth and
possessions and enables him to enjoy them, to accept his lot, and be happy in his work –
this is a gift of God.”
Biblical limitations on the acquisition of wealth also abound and seem to be quoted much
more often than the justifications. One type of limitation that is apparent throughout
scripture has to do with the priority of monetary and similar objectives in the life of the
believer. Scripture stresses the vanity and futility of excess desire and striving for riches.
For one thing this desire can never be satisfied: “He who loves money never has money enough:
whoever loves wealth is never satisfied with his income” (Ecclesiastes 5:10). For another,
worry and anxiety regarding wealth cannot alter God’s will for our lives: “For which of you
by worrying can add a single hour to his life.” (Matthew 6:27)
One of the most important principles found throughout scripture is that material gain
should never take priority over other more important goals. For example, Proverbs 22:1
asserts that “A good name is more desirable than great riches; to be esteemed is better than
silver or gold.”
Even more important than a good name is a right relationship with God. Overemphasis of
financial concerns and material possessions has turned the hearts of many away from the
kingdom of God and toward the kingdom of man. Most importantly, the riches that we
obtain in this life are infinitely less important than the riches (or lack thereof) that await
in the life to come. This fundamental presupposition of Christianity is summarized in
Christ’s exhortation against treasure on earth. (Matthew 4:19-21)
Do not store up for yourselves treasures on earth where moth and rust
destroy, and where thieves break in and steal. But store up for yourselves
treasures in heaven, where moth and rust do not destroy, and where
thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is there your
heart will be also.
In Luke 9:25, Jesus advises his followers of the ultimate consequences of overemphasis on
the material things of the world: “What good is it for a man to gain the whole world, and
yet lose or forfeit his very self?”
Scripture also places limitations on how we go about obtaining wealth. The most
frequently mentioned limitation is honesty. Christians are absolutely called to to honest
in all they do:
Don’t collect any more than you are required to. (Luke 3:13)
Do not steal, do not give false testimony, do not defraud. (Mark 10:19)
A just balance and scales belong to the Lord; all the weights of the bag are
His concern. (Proverbs 16:11)
Scripture speaks even more frequently to the related theme of dishonesty with
considerable emphasis on the associated consequences.
O deceitful tongue, he will punish you with a warrior’s sharp arrows, with
burning coals of the broom tree. (Psalms 120: 3-4)
Ill-gotten gains are of no value, but righteousness delivers from death.
(Proverbs 10:2)
A fortune made by a lying tongue is a fleeting vapor and a deadly snare.
(Proverbs 21:6)
The compatibility of the preceding with the modern marketing approach should be
apparent. In fact, the last quotation is an excellent expression of the primary
presupposition of the modern marketing concept, but from a negative rather then positive
perspective. That is those firms which attempt to make an easy, quick profit by
deceiving their customers will not prosper in the long run. Customers who are tricked
into buying something they really do not need or want will not come back. Customer
dissatisfaction will ultimately lead to declines in revenues and profits with ultimate
financial ruin.
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this paper was to develop a Christian perspective on the marketing
discipline. The general nature of marketing was discussed with special emphasis on the
modern marketing concept. Examination of the underlying presuppositions expressed in
the modern marketing concept has hopefully demonstrated that there is no inherent
conflict between marketing and a Christian world view. To the contrary, the modern
marketing discipline has the potential to be completely compatible with the presuppositions
and values contained in scripture. This will happen only if marketing practitioners and
academicians recognize the applicability of scripture and seek to meet its requirements.
Harold Heie (1987) refers to this as “freedom within bounds.” That is, Christians are free
to pursue marketing within the boundaries established by the word of God.
REFERENCES
Chewning, Richard C., John W. Eby, and Shirley J. Roels (1990), Business Through the Eyes
of Faith, San Francisco: Harper Collins.
Hasker, William (1992), “Faith-Learning Integration: An Overview,” Christian Scholar’s
Review, (March), 234-248.
Heie, Harold (1994), Christian College Coalition “Use of Scripture Workshop.”
_______, (1987), “Mathematics: Freedom Within Bounds,” in The Reality of Christian
Learning, Harold Heie and David L. Wolfe, ed., Saint Paul: Christian University Press, 206-230.
Mulford, John E. “Servant Leadership: The Key to Business Success” (1992), Proceedings of
Christian Business Faculty Association National Conference, Anderson, Indiana.
Walsh, Brian J. (1992), “WorldViews, Modernity and the Task of Christian College Education,
Faculty Dialogue, 13-33.
Wolfe, David L. (1987), “The Line of Demarcation Between Integration and Pseudointegration,”
in The Reality of Christian Learning, Harold Heie and David L. Wolfe, ed., Christian University
Press, 3-11.
All scriptural references are from The Holy Bible, New International Version (1986), Nashville:
Holman Bible Publishers.