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Chapter 12 Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance Renaissance – the “rebirth” of classical culture in Italy between 1350 and 1550 Characteristics of Italian Renaissance By the mid-fourteenth century, northern Italy was mostly a land of independent cities that dominated the country districts around them. These city-states became the centers of Italian political, economic and social life. The Renaissance was an age of recovery from: Black Death, political disorder, and economic repression (Dark Ages) There was a new regard for human dignity and worth and a realization of individual potential which created a new social ideal of the well-rounded personality Renaissance affected primarily the upper classes and elite people of Italy The Making of Renaissance Society Economic Recovery Italian merchants carried on a flourishing commerce through the Mediterranean Sea, expanded trading to the north Hanseatic League – a number of North German coastal towns that had formed a commercial and military association, involved in trade particularity in timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and wines New Industries By the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Florentine woolen industry had begun to recover and Italian cites began to develop and expand luxury industries Other new industries included: printing, mining, and metallurgy Entrepreneur – one who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk in a business venture in the expectation of making a profit The city of Florence regained its preeminence in banking in the fifteenth century, due to the Medici Family; the House of Medici was the greatest bank in Europe, however in the early and middle part of the fifteenth century, the Medici bank suffered a rather sudden decline due to poor leadership and a series of bad loans Social Changes in the Renaissance First Estate – the clergy whose preeminence was grounded in the belief that people should be guided by spiritual ends Second Estate – the nobility, whose privileges were based on the principle that the nobles provided security and justice for society, land-holding citizens who constituted between 2 and 3 percent of the population Third Estate – consisted peasants and inhabitants of the towns and cities, between 85 and 90 percent of the population; decline of the manorial system and the continuing decline of serfdom, beneath them were slaves Slavery in the Renaissance Although some domestic slaves existed, slavery had declined for economic reasons and been replaced by serfdom; Slavery reappeared in Spain, where both Christians and Muslims were taken prisoners as slaves during the lengthy Reconquista. With the shortage of workers after the Black Death, Italians were led to introduce slavery on fairly large basis. Slaves were used as unskilled labor. By the end of the fifteenth century, slavery had declined dramatically in the Italian states Family in the Renaissance Family included the extended household of parents, children, and servants as well as grandparents, widowed mothers, and unmarried sisters; the family bond was a source of great security Marriage – often arranged by parents to strengthen business or family ties (dowry), the father-husband was the center of the Italian family, made crucial decisions and managed finances, the wife managed the household and their primary function was to bear children, however childbirth was a fearful occasion and could be deadly The Italian States in the Renaissance Five major powers: Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papal States, and Naples Northern Italy was divided into Milan and Venice Milan – after the death of the last ruler of Milan, Visconti, in 1447, Francesco Sforza, one of the leading condottieri conquered the city and became the new duke, generated enormous revenues for the state Venice – remained an extremely stable political entity governed by a small oligarchy of merchant-aristocrats; Venice embarked on the conquest of a territorial state in northern Italy to protect its food supply and its overland trade routes Florence – dominated the region of Tuscany, in beginning in the fifteenth century, it was governed by a small merchant oligarchy that manipulated the apparently republican government Papal States – in central Italy, they nominally under the political control of the popes, the Renaissance Popes of the fifteenth century directed much of their energy toward reestablishing their control over the Papal States Naples – most of southern Italy and usually the island of Sicily, they remained a backward monarchy with a population consisting largely of poverty-stricken peasants dominated by unruly nobles Independent City-State Many independent city-states under the control of powerful riling families that became brilliant centers of Renaissance culture in the fifteenth century Mantua, under enlightened rule of Gonzaga lords Ferrara, government by the flamboyant d’Estate Urbino, ruled by the Montefeltro dynasty Warfare in Italy The concept of a balance of power, designed to prevent the aggrandizement of any one state at the expense of the other After 1454, the Italian states signed the Peace of Lodi, which ended almost a half century war and inaugurated a relatively peaceful forty year era in Italy An alliance system (Milan, Florence, and Naples versus Venice and the Papal States) The workable balance of power failed to establish lasting cooperation among the major powers or a common foreign policy Italy soon became a battlefield for the great powers struggle between the French and Spanish monarchies For the next fifteen years, the French and Spanish competed to dominate Italy The war was part of a long struggle for power throughout Europe between the Valois and Habsburg dynasties The sack of Rome in 1527 by the armies of the Spanish king Charles I, brought a temporary end to the Italian wars, thereafter, the Spaniards dominated Italy Italy would not achieve unification and nationhood until 1870 Machiavelli and the New Statecraft Niccolo Machiavelli - an Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet, and playwright. He is a figure of the Italian Renaissance and a central figure of its political component, most widely known for his treatises on realist political theory (The Prince) on the one hand and republicanism (Discourses on Livy) on the other. The Prince Machiavelli’s ideas on politics stemmed from two major sources, his preoccupation with Italy’s political problems and his knowledge of ancient Rome The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy Individualism – emphasis on and interest in the unique traits of each person Secularism – the process of becoming more concerned with material, worldly, temporal things and less with spiritual and religious things Humanism – an intellectual movement in Renaissance Italy based on the study of Greek and Roman classics Renaissance Humanism was an intellectual movement based on the study of the classical literary works of Greece and Rome. Humanists studied the liberal artsgrammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history- all of which are subjects called humanities Emergence of Humanism Petrarch - an Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists. Petrarch is often popularly called the "father of humanism". Petrarch was the first intellectual to characterize the Middle Ages as a period of darkness, promoting the mistake belief that medieval culture was ignorant of classical antiquity Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy Civic humanism – an intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was both an intellectual and a statesman, as the ideal and held that humanists should be involved in government and use their rhetoric training in the service of the state Cicero served as the inspiration for the Renaissance ideal that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one’s state Civic humanism reflected the values of the urban society of the Italian Renaissance. Humanists came to believe that their study of the humanities should be put to the service of the state Lorenzo Valla - an Italian humanist, educator, and rhetoric who studied both Latin and Greek; he was credited for proving that the long suspected Donation of Constantine was a forgery because the Latin text was written four centuries after Constantine’s death Humanism and Philosophy Neoplatonism – a revival of Platonic philosophy in the third century A.D., associated with Plotinus; a similar revival in the Italian Renaissance, associated with Marsilio Ficino, who attempted to synthesize Christianity and Platonism Renaissance Hermeticism Hermeticism – an intellectual movement beginning in the fifteenth century that taught that divinity is embodied in all aspects of nature; it included works on alchemy and magic as well was theology and philosophy. The tradition continued into the seventeenth century and influenced many of the leading figures of the Scientific Revolution The Hermetic revival offered a new view of humankind, they believed that human beings had been created as divine beings endowed with divine creative power but had freely chosen to enter the material world Pantheism – a doctrine that equates God with the universe and all that is in it Education in the Renaissance Renaissance humanists believed that human beings could be dramatically changed by education Vittorino de Feltre founded the mast famous secondary school of its time in Mantua 1423 Stressed importance of “liberal arts” which included, history, moral philosophy, eloquence, letters, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music Humanist education was thought to be a practical preparation for life; its aim was not to create great scholars but rather produce complete citizens who could participate in the civic life of their communities The Impact of Printing The development of printing from moveable type was a gradual process that culminated between 1445 and 1450; Johannes Gutenberg played an important role in bringing the process to completion By 1500, there were more that 1,000 printers in Europe; printing became one of the largest industries in Europe The Artistic Renaissance Renaissance artists considered the imitation of nature their primary goal; their search for naturalism became an end in itself: to persuade onlookers of the reality of the object or event they were portraying Art in the Early Renaissance Landscape Perspective (depth) Geometric Secular Donatello: David Brunelleschi Masaccio: Tribute Money Masaccio: Primavera Artistic High Renaissance By this time, many artists had mastered the new techniques for a scientific observation of the world around them and were now ready to move into individualistic forms of creative expression (1480-1520) Leonardo da Vinci: Last Supper Raphael: School of Athens Bramante (architecture) Michelangelo: Creation of Adam The Artist and Social Status By the end of the fifteenth century, a transformation in the position of the artists had occurred; especially talented individuals, such as Leonardo, Raphael, and Michelangelo, were no longer regarded as artisans but as artistic geniuses Northern Artistic Renaissance In the north, the prevalence of Gothic cathedrals with their stained-glass windows resulted in more emphasis on illuminated manuscripts and wooden pane painting for altarpieces, northern painters became masters at rendering details Van Eyck: Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride Albrecht Duere: Adoration of the Magi The European State in the Renaissance Attempts were made to reestablish the centralized power of monarchial governments “New Monarchies” – the governments of France, England, and Spain at the end of the fifteenth century, whose rulers succeeded in reestablishing or extending centralized royal authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and insisting on the loyalty of all peoples living in their territories Growth of the French Monarchy The Hundred Years’ War left France in bad condition, depopulation, desolate farmlands, ruined commerce, and independent and unruly nobles all made it difficult for the kings to assert their authority Charles VII, established a royal army with the consent of the EstatesGeneral He received the right to levy the taille, an annual direct tax King Louis XI, also known as the Spider because of his wily and devious ways, imposed a permanent tax imposed by royal authority; Louis secured a sound, regular income, however he was not successful in repressing the French nobility England: Civil War and a New Monarchy The cost of the war in its final years and the losses in manpower strained the English economy greatly War of the Roses broke out, in the 1450’s; the civil war pitted the ducal house of Lancaster (red rose), against the ducal house of York (white rose) Finally Henry Tudor defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, and established the new Tudor dynasty As the first Tudor king, King Henry VII, tried to reduce internal dissension and establish as strong monarchial government Henry controlled the irresponsible activity of the nobles by establishing the Court of Star Chamber, which did not use juries and allowed torture to be used to extract confessions Henry was successful in extracting income from the traditional financial resources of the English monarch; his policies enabled him to leave England with a stable and prosperous government The Unification of Spain Aragon and Castile, the two strongest Spanish kingdoms, were joined together with the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon Both kingdoms maintained their own parliaments, the two rulers worked to strengthen royal control of government Ferdinand and Isabella reorganized the military forces of Spain, and recognized the importance of controlling the Catholic church, with its vast power and wealth They secured from the pope, the right to select the most important church officials in Spain The Inquisition of Spain in 1478, worked with cruel efficiency to guarantee the orthodoxy of the converts to Catholicism , however they had no authority over practicing Jews In their Conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella took the drastic step of expelling all professed Jews from Spain The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburgs The Holy Roman Empire failed to develop a strong monarchial authority The position of the HRE remained in the hands of the Habsburg dynasty Much of the Habsburg success in the fifteenth century was due to a well-executed policy of dynastic marriages The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe Rulers struggled to achieve the centralization of their territorial states due to many untold difficulties, religion, struggle between crown and nobility The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire Eastern Europe was increasingly threatened by the steadily advancing Ottoman Turks The Byzantine Empire had served as a buffer between the Muslims Middle East and the Latin West; it was severely weakened by the sack of Constantinople in 1204 The Ottoman Turks spread rapidly, seizing the lands of the Seljuk Turks, the Byzantine Empire, Bulgaria Under the rule of Sultan Murad, the Ottomans completely demised the Byzantine Empire By the end of the fifteenth century, they were threatening Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, and Poland; the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, became their bitter enemy The Church in the Renaissance Two widespread movements in the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuriesLollardy and Hussitism-posed new threats to the church English Lollardy was a product of John Wyclif, whose disgust with clerical corruption led him to a far-ranging attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices