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CHAPTER2 REVIF W RELATED LITERATURE This chapter !s devoted to literature review of u'le theory about ambiguity, especially structural ambiguity, constituent analysis, and the t:-ee diagrams of structure constituents. the experts to add some explanations and writer will quote some references examples that are useful in supporting the theory. Ambiguity we know a word, we should know how i'. is pronounced and meanmgs. However, not all words have only one sound and one meaning. Sometimes, words that have the same prorat<'1ciations could lllive different meanings. It also happens in sente:Jces. One sentence can have r.10re than one meaning, which can be considered as fui ambiguous sentence. Hence, it ma.l<es listeners &c'1d readers become confused with the correct meaning of words that a'.'e pronounced and the sentences that are ·written. According to Fromkin & Rodman (1983: j69), a word or a sentence is ambiguous if it can be understood or interpreted in mere Lh&> one way. For example: The sentence "She canno! children". It may be understood to mea'1 "She is unable to give birth to children" or "She carmot tolerate children". The a.-nbiguity is because there are two won:s bear with two different meanings. There are two types of ambiguity, i.e. lexical ambiguity a'1d structural ambiguity. 8 9 2.1 The first type of a.rnbigui!y is Iexical ambiguity. It happens in a word, not m a sentence. Accordi:lg to Hurford & Heasley (1994.· 128). notes that any ambiguity resu:ting from the 2-!nbiguity of a word is a LEXICAL AMBIGUITY. Additionally, in accordance with Fromkin & Rodman (1983: 169), sentences may be ambigu::ms because they contab one or more a.rnbi![UOUS words. This is "How is bread made?" know that!" Alice cried eagerly. "You take some flour " "Where do you pick the flower?" the Whi:e Queen asked. "In a garden, or the hedges?" "Well, it isn't picked at all," Alice explained: "if s ground " "How many acres of ground?'' said t:.1e White Queen. The humor of this passage is based on two sets of homonyms: flower and flour <md :wo meanings of ground. Alice means ground as the past tense of grind, while the W11ite Queen is ir.terpreting ground to mean "earth." Thus, lexical ambiguity is an ambigaity of one or more words in sentences. The second type ambiguity is structura1 ambiguity, which is centered a sentence. As this thesis focuses on structural ambiguity, the writer will give much more explanations about it instead of lexical ambiguity. Snuctural ambiguity is an ambiguity of the structure of a sentence which causes the tnear.ing of the sentence ca.'"! be interpreted in more than one way. An exa_rnple of structural ambiguity is noted by Akmajian. Demers, Farmer. & Harnish (1998:140-141): "' The mother of the boy and he girl will arrive soon. TI1is sentence is ambiguous; that is, it has more than one meaning. It is either about one person (the mother) or about two people (the mother in addition to the girl). That sentence should be grouped in two different ways: a. The mother (of the boy and b. girl) will arrive soon. (The mother of the boy) and the girl v.@ arrive soon. When of the boy and the gM are grouped together as in (a), the sentence is interpreted to mean that only the mother will When of the boy is instead grouped with the mother, as in (b), the sentence is interpreted to mean that both the mother and girl will arr:ve. Thus, depending on how the words are grouped (how they are structu:ed), one interpretation ather than the other is possible. The other exatnple of structural ambiguity from Finegan (1999: 151): 11 • He sold the car to his brother in l\ew York. Th:s stri;1g of words is ambiguous. That is, it has more than one possible ir.terpretation. In the sentence above, the ambiguity arises not from the individual words (which are ail unambiguous) but from the fact that the string of words has two possible constituent structures. We can bracket that sentence in different ways to indicate the differe:Jt constituent structures: " He sold the car [to [his brother in New York]]. 2. He sold the car [to his brother] [in New York]. The first sentence mea.'ls that it \Vas to brother in New York that he sold the car. Meanwhile, the second sentence means that it was in New York that he sold the car to his brother. addition, according to 0'Grady, Aronoff,' Archibald, & Rees-Miller (2001: 263), some sentences are structurally ambiguous in that their component words can be combined in more than one way. An exan1ple of str:1ctural ambiguity in a sentence: • Nicole saw the people with binoculars. Jn one interpretatim; of that sentence, the people had binoculars when Nicole noticed them (the phrase with binoculars modified the noun people), while in the other interpretatioE, Nicole saw rhe people by using the binoculars (the PP modifies the verb). 12 Beside thaalong with Fromkin & Rodman (1983: 172), sentences that the structures more than one interp:-emtion, rather than the words the sentences are structurlllly ambiguous. Some examples of structural ambiguity: a) They hated the shooting of the hunters b) horse is ready to ride. c) JoiL11 saw walking to the store this morning. d) The English history teacher is having her tea. In a) our knowledge of linguistic stmcture pennits us to interpret the sentence as referring to hlLJ.ters as shooters or as being shot. In b) the horse itself that is ready to ride or the horse that is ready to ride by someone. In c) either John or JoacJ. who is walking to the store; that is John is riding a car and saw Joan is walking to the store or John who is walking to the store, saw Joan. In d) either the teacher of English history or the history teacher who is English tl:!at is having her tea. Constituent Structure According to Wekker & Haegeman (2000.· 5), synmctic analysis may be defined as: dete1mining the relevant component parts of a sentence and describing these parts grrur"'11atically. The component pa1is of a sentence are called constituents. In other words, syntax involves the two closely related tasks of: breaking down the sentence into its constituents and assigning some grammatical label to each constituent, stating what type of constituent (or g!'llmmatical category) it is, what grammatical function it ha. Constituent are like building blocks which pattern in certain ways to form larger and 13 the largest unit larger the sentence. The are called constituents and the hierarchical of larger units in a sentence is cai!ed constituent structure. Each constituent smallest) can be broken down into its component parts. (except The purpose of doing syntactc ar_a!ysis is to discover the ways in which constituents combine to fom1 the structure of sentences. 1l!er.efc;re, in the analysis of the constituent structure of a semence, it is important to break sentences down into their various constituents and establish the form classes. The most common way used to indicate what type of constituent or to represent the constitaent structure of sentences is labelled bracketing; however there is another way, i.e. a tree diagram. 2.3. .Diagrams In order to demonstrate struct-:.tral ambiguity that occurs in each sentence, the tree diagram will be used to help the writer indicate structural constituent of each sentence. Tree diagram is a notational device which is entirely equivalent to labelled bracket£ng1 although it looks different, it provides the same information about the syntactic structure of a sentence. According to Akmajian, Demers, Farmer, & Harnish (I 998:!57), there are at least three important aspects of sentence structure! a. The linear order of words in a sentence b. The categorization of words into parts of speech c. The grouping of werds inio structural constituents of the sentence (phrases) three types of structm·al information can be encoded into what is called a tree diagram (or phrase marker) of the sort illustration in tree Ll. Co2sider the structure 14 in tree 1. 1. Such tree diagrams can at first seem quite complicated. But in fact they represent a simple and straightforward way of the three kinds of structural information sumna:rized above. Tree s VP Aux NP \ / \ \l pp N Art I people m Art!\ )\ I Art the I N room p ! \ I move the ' )\ I I A."': I I will pp NP \ D A The v .I desk into N the hall Symbols uses: S - se,.'1tence; NP --noun phrase; Aux- auxiliary verb; VP- ver:., phrase; ?P Tree prepositional phrase, Art - article; N 1.: represents noun; V - verb; P - preposition. the st.1.1cture of the sentence The people in the room will move the desk into the hall. components of a constituent structure tree are nodes and br 'lches. Branches are the lines that are connecting to the nodes. In nodes, there is important dominance among nodes. For example, PP immed;ately dominates P and NP; it means that PP is morher node and P and NP are rhe daughter nodes. In other words, t.'le mother nodes dominate daughter nodes. The mother is called immediate 15 dominance because the mother nodes dorr:inate the daughter nodes. On the other hand, the daughter node is knovm as immediate constituent. The mother nodes and the daughter >odes ate connected with the bra::tches. p PP P = mother NP = node daugh er nodes / =branches 2.3J. Tree Diagnm1s Structural Ambiguity diagram ca'1 be used to show L'le significant differences of the structure of the same sentence. So that, te ambiguous pati of a sentence can be seen. According to Akmajian. Demers, Farmer, & Harnish (1998:169-170), tree diagrams can 'Je exan:ple above e to explain other itnportant linguistic phenomena. As in one 2.1.2: The motheof the boy and the girl will arrive soon. It is an ambiguous sen+ence, that it has more than one phrase marker (tree diagram), 'Which c!ul be fommlated as trees 1.2 and 1 In tree 1.2 the head "noun" of the subject, mother, is modified by a prepositional phrase that has a conjoined noun phrase in it: of the boy and the girl. In tree 1.3, on the other hand, 16 the subject noun phrase is itseif a conjoined noun phrase: the mother of rhe boy followed by the girl. Tree 1.2 Au.x NP Vf' I I I I Art I p::> N I I '\ I ' \ I \ ------------ ---- -- The mother of the boy and the girl will D arrive soon Tree L3 s Aux The mother of the boy and the girl wiil VP arnve soon 17 A system represe:1tation using phrase markers (tree diagrams) allows us to account for structurally ambiguous sentence by assigning more than one rhrase marker to each ambiguous sentence. 2.4. of Speech and Phrase The lay out cf tree diagra_ms shows the reader's feeling and understartding about the structure relations betv.;een constituent in a sentence. In order to make accurate tree diagrams, one needs a reasonable knowledge about parts of speech and phrases. TI:erefore, the writer gives a brief explanation about these two items: Part of Speech To be proficient in a v.Titer language, we have to be able to put words together in <L'l appropriate sequence to form sentences to express our thought. order to combine words into a sentence con·ectly, we have to know about pa_rt of speech. Accord!ng to Stageberg & Oaks (2000) and Azar (1989), there are five pa:-ts of speech in English, i.e. nou.;1., verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition. 1. Nouns Not:ns are identified as nouns by two aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes (the noun plural {-s pl} and the noun possessive {-s ps} and their derivational morphemes. For exan1ple: The author seems tired. Amhor is a noun because it can be changed to i::'le plural in the same position. It ':Jecomes The authors seem tired. 18 2. Verbs Verbs have a max1mnm of tive different forms: base form or stem, present third - person singular, present participle, past tense, and past participle. Any word that has three or more of these forms is said to belong to the form class called the verb. For example: cut has the mi'1imum of three forms cut, cuts, c:.:tting; depart has four forms depart, depans, departing, <Lrtd departed 3. Adjective A word that is inflected with -er and -est and that is capable of forming adverbs with -ly and/ or nouns with -ness is called an adjective. For example: close is an adjective because it can form close, closest, closely, and closeness. Furthem10re, adJective is also a word that describes nouns or modifies nouns. It gives a little different meaning to a noun. For examples: iazy (adjective) student (noun), intelligent student, good student. 4. Adverb The adverb l,as four suffixes to set it apart from other fonn classes -- the derivational suffixes -ly, -wise, ward, and-sand the free form like. For examples: fortur1ateiy, clockwise, northward, n!ghts, and sn::dentlike. Moreover, adverb is a word that modiiies verbs. it answers the question "How?" For examples: quickly, well, quietly. Jt is also used to modifY 19 adjective. For example: I am extremely (adverb) happy (adjective). It is used to express time or frequen y. Examples: tomorrow, today, yesterday, never, soon, usually, always, yet. 5. P epositions Prepositior:s are words like of in, and to that are usually followed by a noun, noun phrase, personal pronoun, or noun - substitute, which are called the ob3ect 1.he prepositions. For examples: George sat between the two deans, George jumpeC. on it, George went from this to that. 2:.4.2. Pluase Phrase is a group of words which forms part of a sentence. According to Aarls & Aarts (1982), a phrase is a constituent which can be identified on tlJ.e basis of the word class membership of at least one of its constituent words. Beside that, in accordance wieh Todd (1987), phrc.se is a group of words fbnctioning as a unit. There are five commonly types of phrase in English: I. A noun phrase is a group of words with a noun as its headword. There can be up to three noun phrases in a simple sentence, as the underline units in the foHovring simple sentence show: The voung nlfu1threw 1;]:le old dgg a bon 0. Ihat rich rpan will build his eldest daughter a fine hol1Se. 20 2. An adjective phrase is a group of words which modifies a noun. Like adjectives, these words can be either attributive (that is, usually preceding but occasionally tollowing a noun): The child, laughing happiiv, ran out of the house. That utterly i'ascinating novel has been banned. or predicative (t'lat is, following a verb): 3. A verb phrase is a group of words with a verb as headword. Verb phrases car: be either tbite: or non- finite: A simple sentence can have only one finite verb phrase: But a complex sentence may have several finite verb phrases" 21 When he was invited to give a lecture, he wa Jgid that all reasonable expenses would be reh.mdeg. An adverb phrase is a group of words which functions like an adverb; it often plays the role of te!Eng us when, where, why or how an event occurred: We are expecting him to come next year. He alm_pst alwavs arrives on time. 5. A preposition phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition: Do you know lha:man with the scar? We are Qn very good te1ms.