Download Unit One. THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ
ВОСТОЧНОУКРАИНСКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ имени Владимира Даля
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И УЧЕБНЫЕ
ЗАДАНИЯ ПО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОМУ АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «СОЦИОЛОГИЯ»
Часть 1
УТВЕРЖДЕНО
на заседании кафедры
иностранных языков.
Протокол № от
ЛУГАНСК ВНУ 2013
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ
ВОСТОЧНОУКРАИНСКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ имени Владимира Даля
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И УЧЕБНЫЕ
ЗАДАНИЯ ПО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОМУ АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «СОЦИОЛОГИЯ»
Часть 1
“К печати, в свет разрешаю”
Проректор _____________ Смирный М. Ф.
Протокол №___от”___”_________ 200__г.
Составители ________________ Шовкопляс Ольга Игоревна
________________ Крамаренко Маргарита Леоновна
Весь цифровой и фактический материал,
библиографические сведения проверены.
Написание единиц соответствует стандартам
___________
Луганск ВНУ 2013
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ УКРАИНЫ
ВОСТОЧНОУКРАИНСКИЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
УНИВЕРСИТЕТ имени Владимира Даля
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И УЧЕБНЫЕ
ЗАДАНИЯ ПО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОМУ АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «СОЦИОЛОГИЯ»
Часть 1
ЛУГАНСК ВНУ 2013
УДК 802.0-07___________
Методические указания и учебные задания по профессиональному английскому языку. Часть 1/Сост. М.Л. Крамаренко, О.И. Шовкопляс. – Луганск: Изд-во ВНУ
имени В.Даля, 2013. - с.
Цель данных методических указаний и учебных заданий – развить навыки понимания и перевода специальных текстов, расширить запас терминологических
лексических единиц, связанных с курсом “Профессиональный английский язык”, научить употреблению социологических терминов в сфере профессиональноориентированного общения на английском языке.
Для студентов 3 курса специальности «Социология», изучающих профессиональный английский язык, а также для использования в
работе с магистрами, аспирантами, на курсах иностранных языков.
Составители М.Л. Крамаренко, преп.
О.И. Шовкопляс, ст. преп.
Отв. за выпуск
Н.В. Подгорнова, преп.
Рецензент
В.Э. Краснопольский, кандидат педагогических наук,
заведующий кафедрой Восточноукраинского национального университета, доцент.
Общие сведения.
Данные методические указания предназначены для студентов 3 курса специальности «Социология», изучающих профессиональный английский язык, а также для
использования в работе с магистрами, аспирантами, на курсах иностранных языков.
Цель данных методических указаний и учебных заданий – развить навыки чтения, понимания и перевода профессиональных текстов, расширить запас
терминологических лексических единиц, связанных с курсом “Профессиональный английский язык”, научить употреблению социологических терминов в сфере
профессионально-ориентированного общения на английском языке.
Методические указания состоят из 4 разделов.
Каждый раздел имеет введение, проблемные задания, два текста по тематике раздела, составленные на основе оригинальных материалов, упражнения для работы над
лексикой, коммуникативные задания для развития навыков устной речи, три послетекстовых упражнения для повторения и систематизации лексики.
Настоящие методические указания предоставляют возможность студентам выполнять различные виды языковой деятельности:
накопить и систематизировать словарный запас,необходимый для чтения и общения на профессиональные темы;
совершенствовать навыки профессионального общения;
обучиться ведению дискуссий на английском языка
Unit One. THE NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY
Looking Ahead
Unit one presents sociology as a field of study, introduces the sociological perspective and its main goals, defines the sociological imagination. It compares sociology with other social
sciences, outlines the fundamentals of the sociological theory and its levels of analysis and finally discusses the origins and founders of sociology.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What are sociology and sociological perspective?
2. How does the sociological imagination, as a unique feature of sociology, make sociology different from the other social sciences?
3. Why is sociology more than a collection of commonsense observations?
4. Why do sociologists regard suicide as a social as well as an individual act?
5. What social scientists greatly contributed to the development of sociological thought?
6. How are sociological theories classified and what levels of analysis are employed in studying human behavior?
Text I. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
The sociologist has a distinctive way of examining human interactions. Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses primarily on the influence of
social relationships upon people's attitudes and behavior and on how societies are established and change. As a field of study, sociology has an extremely broad scope and it deals with
families, gangs, business firms, political parties, schools, religions, labor unions, etc. It is concerned with love, poverty, conformity, discrimination, illness, alienation, overpopulation
and community.
The Sociological Perspective. In human society, newspapers, television and radio are the usual sources of information about such groups and problems. However, while the basic
function of journalists is to report the news, sociologists bring a different type of understanding to such issues. The perspective of sociology involves seeing through the outside
appearances of people's actions and organizations.
One major goal of this perspective is to identify patterns of and influences on social behavior. For example, sociologists study the passionate desire of movie or rock fans to see in
person, to talk with, even to grab the clothing of a star. Why do people feel this need so powerfully?
The sociological perspective attempts to provide explanations for such patterns. Sociologists are not content to just recognize that millions of people want to meet stars, rather they
examine the shared feelings and behavior of fans within the larger social context of human culture.
The Sociological Imagination. In attempting to understand social behavior, sociologists rely on unusual type of creative thinking, sociological imagination, i.e. an awareness of the
relationship between an individual and the society. Thus instead of simply accepting the fact that movie stars and rock stars are the «royalty» of human society, we could ask, in a more
critical sense, why we are not as interested in meeting outstanding scientists, or elementary school teachers, or architects. Sociological imagination can bring new understanding to daily
life around us.
Sociology and Social Sciences. The term science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon systematic observations. The sciences are commonly divided into
natural and social sciences. Natural science is the study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change. Astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology and
physics are all natural sciences. Social science is the study of various aspects of human society. The social sciences include sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology and
political sciences.
These academic disciplines have a common focus on the social behavior of people, yet each has a particular orientation in studying such behavior. Anthropologists usually study
cultures of the past and preindustrial societies that remain in existence today. Economists explore the ways in which people produce and exchange goods and services. Historians are
concerned with the peoples and events of the past and their significance for us today. Political scientists study international relations, the workings of government and the exercise of
power and authority. Psychologists investigate personality and individual behavior. In contrast to other social sciences, sociology emphasizes the influence that society has on people's
attitudes and behavior. Humans are social animals; therefore, sociologists scientifically examine our social relationships with other people.
To better illustrate the distinctive perspectives of the social sciences, let us examine sociological and psychological approaches to the issue of gambling. Viewed from the perspective of
psychology, gambling represents an escape into a fantasy world where great fortune can be attained easily. By contrast, sociologists focus on the social networks that develop among
many gamblers. Participants in gambling establish friendship groups. For such persons gambling is a form of recreation and may even be their primary social activity. This example
shows that by viewing social phenomena from several perspectives, we can enhance our understanding of human behavior.
Sociology and Common Sense. Human behavior is something about which we all have experience and at least a bit of knowledge from a source of wisdom, which is called common
sense. In our daily life, we rely on common sense to get us through many unfamiliar situations. Unfortunately, this source of knowledge is not always reliable. For example, it was once
considered «common sense» to accept that the earth is flat.
Like other social scientists sociologists do not accept something as a fact because «everyone knows it». Instead, each piece of information must be tested and analyzed in relationship to
other data. At times the findings of sociologists may seem like common sense. Yet, it is important to stress that such findings have been tested by researchers.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary If necessary.
II. Find In the text the English equivalents of the following:
изучать человеческие взаимоотношения; изучение; общественное поведение; влияние общественных отношений на; область исследования; заниматься (интересоваться)
чем-либо; источники информации; внешние черты; главная цель; выявить примеры; дать объяснения чему-либо; социальный контекст; полагаться на; творческое
мышление; осознание (осведомленность); дать новое понимание; повседневная жизнь; область знаний; академические дисциплины; особая ориентация; исследовать
способы; важность; международные отношения; работа правительства; применение силы и власти; исследовать личность; в отличие от; подчеркивать (выделять); подход к;
рассматривать с точки зрения; наоборот; сосредоточить внимание на; общественная деятельность; общественные явления; увеличивать (усиливать); здравый смысл;
мудрость; сведение — сведения; важно отметить (подчеркнуть); проверить (испытать); исследовать.
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) The sociologist has ... of examining human interactions. 2) Sociology is the ... study of social behavior and human groups. 3) As a field of study, sociology has an ... scope. 4)
Sociologists are not ... to just recognize this fact. 5) Thus ... simply accepting this fact as it is, sociologists study and analyze it thoroughly. 6) This term ... the body of knowledge
obtained by methods ... systematic observations. 7) Sciences are ... divided into natural and social ones. 8) Natural science is the study of ... of nature. 9) Social science is the study of ...
of human society. 10) Sociologists ... examine our ... with people. 11) Let us examine different approaches to the ... of gambling. 12) Participants in gambling ... friendship groups. 13)
For such persons gambling is .... 14) In our daily life we ... common sense to get us through ..;. 15) Each piece of information must be analyzed ... other data.
in relationship to, rely on, a form of recreation, establish, issue, scientifically, social relations, various aspects, physical features, commonly, refers to, based upon, instead of, content,
extremely broad, systematic, a distinctive way, unfamiliar situations.
IV. Study the following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to focus on, to have some influence on, to influence smth, to deal with, to be concerned with, to report news, to involve doing smth, passionate desire, to see in person, to attempt to do
smth, shared feelings, in a critical sense, to be interested in smth, to obtain, to include, to have a common focus on, to remain in existence, an approach to, to view smth from several
perspectives, at least, at times, to seem like.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) What does sociology focus on as a field of study? 2) What and who does it deal with? 3) What differs the work of a journalist from that of a sociologist? 4) What are the main goals of
the sociological perspective? 5) Why is the sociological imagination very important in doing sociological research? 6) What types are the sciences commonly divided into? 7) What
differs natural science from social science? 8) What social sciences do you know and what do they study? 9) What differs sociology from other social sciences? 10) Why should a social
scientist view social phenomena from different perspectives? 11) What is common sense? 12) How should common sense be used by social scientists?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
sociology, sociological perspective, sociological imagination, science, natural science, social science, common sense.
III. Speak on sociology and its aspects in brief and illustrate your report with situations or examples of your own.
IV. Comment on the following topics, viewing them from the sociological perspective:
1) Gambling.
2) Passionate desire of fans to see their stars in person.
3) Why aren't we interested in outstanding scientists as passionately as we are in movie and rock stars?
Text II. WHAT IS SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY? ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY
Why do people commit suicide? One traditional commonsense answer is that people inherit the desire to kill themselves. Another view is that sunspots drive people to take their own
lives.
Sociologists are not particularly interested in why any one individual commits suicide; they are more concerned with why people in general take their own lives. In order to undertake
such research, sociologists develop theories that offer a general explanation of some type of behavior.
In sociology a theory is a statement or a series of statements that uses concepts to explain problems, actions or behavior. An effective theory will have both explanatory and predictive
power. That is, it will help us to develop a broad and integrated view of seemingly isolated phenomena and to understand how one type of change in an environment leads to others.
An essential task in building a sociological theory is to examine the relationship between bits of data, gathered through research, that may seem completely unrelated. For example, in
researching the problem of suicide sociologists are primarily concerned not with the personalities of individual suicide victims, but rather with suicide rates and how they vary from
country to country. And their research suggests that suicide, while a solitary act, is related to group life. They have developed a theory to explain how individual behavior can be
understood within a social context. Their theory has predictive power, since it suggests that suicide rates will rise or fall in conjunction with certain social and economic changes.
It is important to understand that a theory -- even the best of theories — is not a final statement about human behavior. This theory of suicide is not an exception. Sociologists continue
to examine factors which contribute to a society's rate of suicide. The sociological research shows that the incidence of suicide increases following nationally televised stories about
suicide, and the impact is the greatest after the publicized suicide of an entertainer or politician, and is somewhat less after the suicide of an artist, a criminal or a member of the
economic elite.
One means of classifying sociological theories is by the subject under study. Thus, there are theories concerning the causes of criminal behavior or the universal nature of religion. Yet,
theories can also be distinguished by levels of analysis. There are two of them.
Macro sociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilization. Thus, the above described cross-cultural study of suicide rates is an example of macro sociology.
By contrast, micro sociology stresses study of small groups and often uses experimental studies in laboratories. Sociologists find it useful to employ both of these approaches. In fact, we
can learn a great deal by using macro-level and micro-level analysis to study the same problem. For example, we might try to understand criminal behavior at the macroscopic level by
analyzing crime rates in various countries and at the microscopic level by examining the social forces that influence individuals to become criminals or delinquents.
Origins of Sociology. Philosophers and thinkers of ancient and medieval societies made countless observations about human behavior and predicted that a systematic study of human
behavior was needed to improve society.
The first founder of sociology as a science was the French theorist Auguste Comte (1798-1857). He gave sociology its name. The second founder of sociology was Herbert Spencer
(1820—1903). He greatly dominated scholarly thinking in his times by suggesting that societies are bound to change.
Few sociologists have had such a dramatic impact on many different areas within the discipline as Emile Durkheim (1858—1917) did. Above all, he will be remembered for his
insistence that behavior cannot be fully understood in individualistic terms, that it must be understood within a larger social context. He developed a fundamental thesis to
help understand all forms of society through intensive study of group behavior.
Another important theorist who contributed to the scientific study of society was the German philosopher Max Weber. He pointed out that much of our social behavior cannot
reanalyzed without studying the subjective meanings people attach to their actions — how they themselves view and explain their behavior. He suggested that sociologists should
thoroughly consider thoughts and feelings of the people under study.
Contemporary sociology reflects the diverse contributions of earlier theorists and gains new insights which help to better understand the workings of modern human society.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
покончить жизнь самоубийством (3), точка зрения, начать исследование, разработать теорию, дать общее объяснение чему-либо, ряд утверждений, использовать общие
концепции, разработать широкое и цельное представление, на вид несвязанные явления, окружающая среда, отдельные сведения, получить в ходе исследования, процент
самоубийств, изменяться, иметь отношение к чему-либо, не быть исключением, предмет исследования, различить, вышеописанная, экспериментальные исследования,
использовать (применять), древний, средневековый, господствовать в научном мире, вносить вклад в, придавать значение чему-либо, рассматривать, проникнуть во чтолибо.
III. Supply the missing words and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) One traditional ... answer why people commit suicide is that people ... the desire to kill themselves. 2) Sociologists are ... interested in this problem. 3) They are ... with why people ...
take their own lives. 4)... to undertake such research sociologists ... theories. 5) An ... theory will have both ... and ... power. 6) An ... task in building any theory is to examine data that
seem .... 7) Suicide, while a ... act, is related to ....
8) The ... of suicide increases following ... televised stories about suicide.
9) There are theories ... the causes of criminal behavior. 10) Sociologists find it useful ... both of these. 11) They examine the social forces that ... individuals to become criminals or ...
12) Philosophers of the past made ... about human behavior. 13) A ... study of human behavior is needed to .... 14) The first... of sociology was Auguste Comte. 15) Societies are ... to
change. 16) Herbert Spencer had a ... on sociology. 17) Behavior cannot be understood in ..., it must be understood within ... . 18) Contemporary sociology reflects the ... of earlier
theorists.
diverse contributions, individualistic terms, a larger social context, dramatic, impact, bound, founder, systematic, improve society, countless observations, influence, delinquents, to
employ, approaches, concerning, incidence, nationally, solitary, group behavior, essential, completely unrelated, effective, explanatory, predictive, in order, concerned, inherit,
particularly, commonsense, in general, develop.
IV. Study the following words and word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to drive smb to do smth, to develop a broad and integrated view, to lead to smth, to examine the relationships between, to gather through research, to research a problem, to be primarily
concerned with, to vary from country to country, in conjunction with, a final statement, a means to classify, causes of, to concentrate on, by contrast, to find it useful, to be bound to do
smth, to develop a fundamental thesis, intensive study, to point out, to attach smth to smth, reflect smth, the workings of human society.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) What are sociologists particularly interested in, while investigating a problem of human behavior? 2) What is a theory and what makes any theory especially effective? 3) Why is it
very important to examine the relationships between bits of data gathered through research? 4) How are theories classified? 5) What levels of analysis in sociology do you know? 6) Is
sociology really a new science? 7) Who are the two founders of sociology? 8) What other important theorists in sociology do you know?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions: theory, sociological theory, macro sociology, micro sociology.
III. Speak on the sociological theory and its aspects in brief and illustrate your report with situations or examples of your own.
IV. Speak on the origins of sociology .famous theorists of the past and their contributions to the scientific study of society. Name some contemporary sociological
scientists both foreign and in this country and discuss their impact on this academic discipline.
V. Comment on the increasing incidence of suicide in modem human society and factors that cause it viewing the problem from the sociological perspective and
theory.
VI.
Provide sociological explanations for the causes of criminal behavior in Russia employing macro-level and micro-level analyses.
Revision Exercises on Unit One
I. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit one and translate the following into English.
1) Социология — это последовательное изучение общественного поведения групп людей. 2) Как область исследования социология имеет чрезвычайно широкую сферу
применения и занимается изучением различных групп людей, организаций и их проблем. 3) Задачей социологии является не только изучение внешних черт человеческих
поступков, но и определение моделей общественного поведения. 4) Пытаясь понять общественное поведение, социологи полагаются на особый вид творческого мышления,
социологическое воображение, которое помогает им определить взаимоотношения между индивидуумом и обществом. 5) В отличие от других общественных наук,
социология особое внимание уделяет тому влиянию, которое общество оказывает на человеческие отношения и поведение. 6) Рассматривая общественные явления с разных
точек зрения, мы можем лучше понять поведение людей. 7) В нашей повседневной жизни мы полагаемся на здравый смысл, чтобы найти выход из сложных ситуаций, но, к
сожалению, этот источник знаний не всегда надежен. 8) Временами находки социологов могут показаться обычным здравым смыслом, но важно отметить, что эти находки
тщательно проверяются исследователями. 9) Чтобы предпринять какое-то исследование, социологи разрабатывают теории, которые предлагают общее объяснение того или
иного вида поведения людей. 10) Главная задача социологической теории — это исследование взаимосвязей между отдельными сведениями, которые на первый взгляд
могут показаться абсолютно несвязанными. 11) Социологи разработали теории, которые объясняют, как можно понять поведение отдельного индивидуума внутри
социального контекста. 12) Макросоциология изучает широкомасштабные явления или всю цивилизацию. 13) Микросоциология основное внимание уделяет изучению
небольших групп людей и часто использует экспериментальные исследования в лаборатории. 14) Социологи считают полезным использование обоих этих подходов. 15)
Философы и мыслители древности и средневековья проводили многочисленные наблюдения человеческого поведения и предсказали, что последовательное изучение
человеческого поведения необходимо для улучшения общества. 16) Современная социология отражает весь этот разнообразный вклад древних мыслителей и создает новые
представления, которые помогают глубже понять пути развития человеческого общества.
II. Reread the texts of unit one again and discuss the problem-questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction to the unit.
III. Comment on the following quotation thinking like sociologists:
«To attempt to understand human behavior is ... the most exciting intellectual challenge in the world» (Milton M. Gordon «The Scope of Sociology», 1988).
Unit Two. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Looking Ahead
Unit two examines sociology as asocial science. The basic principles and stages of scientific method are described. A number of techniques commonly used in sociological research
are presented. Particular attention is given to the practical and ethical challenges that sociologists face in studying human behavior and to Max Weber's call for «value neutrality» in
social science research.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How do sociologists use scientific method?
2. Why does the conclusion of a sociological study point the way to new research?
3. What are the practical and ethical challenges faced by sociologists who wish to conduct participant-observation research?
4. How can sociologists use unobtrusive measures to study social phenomena indirectly?
5. Why is it valuable for sociologists to have a code of professional ethics?
6.
What is the objective of basic sociology, and what relationship should there be between basic and applied sociology?
Text III. WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC METHOD?
How do sociologists study human behavior and institutions? Like the typical citizen on the street, the sociologist is interested in the central questions of our time. Is the family falling
apart? Why is there so much crime? and such like. Such issues concern most people, whether or not they have academic training.
However, unlike the typical citizen, the sociologist must use scientific method in studying society. Scientific method is a systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum
objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.
A key element in scientific method is planning. When sociologists wish to learn more about human behavior, they do not simply walk out the door, or pick up the telephone, and begin
asking questions. There are five basic steps in scientific method that researchers follow in developing useful research. These are:
1) defining the problem,
2) reviewing the literature,
3) formulating the hypothesis,
4) selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data,
5) developing the conclusion.
An actual example will illustrate the workings of scientific method. In the 1980s, people in the United States became increasingly aware of the plight of the homeless in the nation's
urban centers. In the past the homeless were primarily older white males living as alcoholics in «skid row» areas. However, today's homeless persons tend to be younger and include
growing numbers of families without any shelter.
Defining the problem. The first step in any sociological research project is to state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. In beginning their work on homelessness, a team
of sociologists headed by David Snow considered the question of who the homeless are. The researchers learned that the mass media presented the homeless primarily as mentally ill.
The sociologists developed a researchable question: «How representative is the media image of the homeless?» After that they developed an operational definition, i.e. an explanation of
the abstract concept «mental illness». They classified homeless persons as mentally ill «if they had contact with one or more mental health agencies and were simultaneously diagnosed
by the agency personnel as having one or more mental health problems.»
Reviewing the literature. By conducting a review of the literature, researchers refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in collecting data and may avoid
making unnecessary mistakes. When David Snow and his colleagues began considering mental illness among the homeless, they turned to two types of literature. First, they reviewed
«popular» magazines such as «Time», «Newsweek» and «People» and found a consistent image of the homeless as «street people» who had previously spent some time in mental
hospitals. Second, they examined the systematic studies done in Boston and New York which indicated that homeless persons were usually found to have a diagnosable mental illness.
But were these studies representative of the homeless? Still further review showed that, when the researchers focused on the homeless in general, the proportions of homeless persons
found to be mentally ill were much lower.
Formulating the hypothesis. After reviewing the earlier research concerning homeless the researchers developed a guess about the relation-ship between mental illness and
homelessness. Such a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors is called a hypothesis. A hypothesis essentially tells us what we are looking for in our
research. In order to be meaningful, it must be testable.
As part of the study of homelessness, one possible hypothesis might be: «Most homeless persons are not mentally ill».
In formulating a hypothesis, we do not imply that it is correct. We merely suggest that it is worthy of study, that the hypothesis should be scientifically tested and confirmed, refuted or
revised, depending on the outcome of the study.
Collecting and analyzing data. In order to test a hypothesis and determine if it is supported or refuted, researchers need to collect information. To guide them in collecting and
analyzing data, they employ one of the research designs, the most effective of them being selecting the sample. There are many kinds of samples, of which the random sample is
frequently used by social scientists. By using the random sampling techniques, sociologists do not need to question everyone in a population.
In the study of homelessness the researchers drew a random sample of 800 names from the 13,881 homeless men and women who had registered at least once in the Salvation Army
during a 14-month period and then compared this sample with the records of six other states and local agencies such as hospitals, mental health institutions, etc. Ultimately, a usable
sample of 767 persons was selected for the study of homelessness.
Developing the conclusion. Scientific studies do not aim to answer all the questions that can be raised about a particular object. Therefore, the conclusion of a research study
represents both an end and a beginning. It terminates a specific phase of investigation, but it should also generate ideas for future study. This is true of the research on the homeless
conducted by David Snow and his colleagues.
Sociological studies do not always confirm the original hypothesis. In many instances, a hypothesis is refuted, and researchers have to reformulate their conclusions, to reexamine their
methodology and to make changes in the research design. In the study discussed above, however, the data confirmed the hypothesis: most homeless persons are not mentally ill. The
researchers concluded that the homeless are not typically mentally dysfunctional, they are merely trapped in economic conditions that lead to poverty and despair. With this finding in
mind further implications are evident: policy makers must begin to address the issue of homelessness in a very different manner and greater attention must be given to the structural
problems of society that contribute to harmlessness, including unemployment and the inadequate supply of low-cost housing.
In Summary: Scientific Method
Let us briefly summarize the process of scientific method through a review of the example. The researchers defined the problem (the relationship between harmlessness and mental
illness).They reviewed the literature (other studies of the presence of mental illness among the homeless) and formulated the hypothesis («Most homeless persons are not mentally ill»).
Snow and his colleagues collected the data by creating an appropriate sample of homeless persons and analyzed them.
Finally, they developed the conclusion: the typical homeless person is likely not to have a history of mental illness. Thus, through the systematic application of scientific method, these
researchers studied a contemporary social issue and generated meaningful findings of interest to sociologists, mental health workers and policy makers.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
отдельная проблема (спорный вопрос), интересовать (касаться) кого-либо, гарантировать объективность и последовательность, определить проблему, изучить литературу,
сформулировать гипотезу, выбрать план исследования, собрать и проанализировать данные, сделать вывод, актуальный пример, главным образом, ясно определить,
средства массовой информации, персонал, провести обзор, четко определить проблему исследования, выявить технические приемы, избегать ошибок, постоянный образ, соответствовать чему-либо, значимый, иметь в виду (подразумевать), подтвердить, опровергать, пересмотреть, конечный результат исследования, руководить (направлять),
отбирать, случайный отбор, провести отбор для исследования, завершить отдельную фазу исследования, создавать идеи для будущего изучения, попасть в ловушку,
представлять интерес для.
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among I those given below:
1) Like the ... on the street, the sociologist is interested in questions that... most people. 2) A... of scientific method is planning. 3) Sociologists do not simply ... the door or ... the
telephone to learn more about human behavior. 4) People in the United States became ... of the plight of the homeless in the nation's ... centers. 5) Sociologists try to develop ...
questions. 6) First, they reviewed ... such as «Time», «Newsweek» and «People». 7) Second, they examined ... done in Boston and New York. 8) Still... review refuted this hypothesis.
9) A hypothesis ... tells us what we are looking for in our research. 10) In formulating a hypothesis we ... suggest that it is ... study. 11) Sociologists ... one of the research designs. 12)
The random sample is ... used by social scientists.
13) Scientific studies do not ... to answer all the questions about ....
14) The conclusion of a research study ... both an end, and a beginning.
15) The homeless are merely trapped in economic conditions that lead to ... and .... 16)... further implications are evident. 17)... contributes to homelessness. 18) Through ... of scientific
method the researchers studied a ... social issue ... to sociologists,... and ... .
policy makers, mental health workers, contemporary, the systematic application, the inadequate supply of low-costing housing, with this finding in mind, poverty, despair, represents,
aim, a particular object, frequently, employ, merely, worthy of, essentially, further, the systematic studies, «popular magazines», researchable, aware, urban, walk out, pick up, key
element, typical citizen, concern, of interest.
IV. Study the following words and word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to be interested in, to concern smb, (un)like smb, to ensure smth, the workings of a method, to be aware of, to tend to smth, to state as clearly as possible, to present ... as ... , to be
representative of, to conduct a review, to avoid doing smth, further (review, investigation, etc.), to focus on, to imply, to be worthy of, to depend on, ultimately, both ... and ..., to be true
of, to confirm a hypothesis, to make changes in, to be trapped, to lead to poverty and despair, to contribute to, an (in)adequate supply of, to be of interest to smb.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) What questions are sociologists interested in? 2) What differs the sociologist from the typical citizen? 3) What is scientific method and why is planning its key element? 4) What are
the five basic steps in scientific method? 5) What does it mean to define a problem? 6) How do sociologists review the literature concerning a problem under study? 7) What is a
hypothesis? Is it always correct? 8) How do sociologists test a hypothesis? 9) Why do you think that the random sample is frequently used by social scientists? 10) How do you
understand that developing the conclusion is not the end of a research study? 11) What do researchers have to do if their hypothesis is refuted?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions: scientific method, hypothesis, research design, random sample.
III. Speak on scientific method and its aspects in brief and illustrate your reports with situations and examples of your own.
IV. Employ the scientific method and its stages described in this text and comment on the problem of the homeless in Russia.
V. Give some other actual examples of human behavior which can be analyzed with the help of this scientific method of sociological research. Comment on them
thinking like sociologists.
Text IV. RESEARCH DESIGNS FOR COLLECTING DATA. ETHICS OF RESEARCH
An important aspect of sociological research is the decision as to how data should be collected. A research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically.
Sociologists regularly use experiments, participant observations, surveys and unobtrusive techniques to generate data for their research.
Experiments. When sociologists wish to study a possible cause-and-effect relationship, they may conduct experiments. An experiments an artificially created situation that allows the
researcher either to confirm or to refute the hypothesis under study. In the classic method of conducting an experiment, two groups of people are selected and compared: the
experimental group which is exposed to the experiment and the control group which is not.
Participant observation. It is a research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation in and observation of a group or a community under study.
In some cases, the sociologist actually «joins» the group for a period of time to get an accurate sense of how it operates. In conducting participant observation research the investigator
may face several problems. Firstly, in our society many people resent the feeling of '«being studied». Thus, if the group sees the researcher as an outsider and an observer — rather than
a member of the group — its members may feel uneasy and hide many thoughts and emotions. On the other hand, if the researcher disguises his or her identity or purpose, he or she is
being somewhat dishonest and this may also distort the group process. Finally, sociologists must learn to see the world as the group sees it. This raises a delicate question regarding the
effect of the group on the observer and the observer on the group. The sociologist must retain a certain level of detachment from the group under study and the observer cannot allow the
close associations or even friendships that inevitably develop or influence the conclusion of the study.
Surveys. Almost all of us have responded to surveys of one kind or another. A survey is a study, generally in the form of an interview or a questionnaire, which provides sociologists
with information concerning how people think and act.
Each of these forms has its own advantages. An interview can obtain a high response rate because people find it more difficult to turn down a personal request for an interview than to
throw away a written questionnaire. On the other hand, questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper. Also, since the questions are written, the researcher knows that there is some
guarantee of consistency, whereas five interviewers can ask the same question in five different ways.
Unobtrusive measures. They include a variety of research techniques that have no impact on who or what is being studied. Social scientists and students from the University of
Arizona studied people's spending and eating habits by examining household garbage left out on the street. This is an unconventional example of the use of unobtrusive measures in
social scientific research.
The basic techniques of unobtrusive measures are the use of statistics and studying cultural, economic and political documents, including newspapers, periodicals, radio and television
tapes, diaries, songs, folklore and legal papers, to name a few examples.
It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. Two or more methods used together may be especially informative. For example, unobtrusive
methods have proved to be valuable as a supplement to other research methods. One investigator wished to examine the relationship between reported and actual beer consumption. He
obtained a «front door» measure of consumption by asking residents of houses how much beer they drank each week. At the same time, a «backdoor» measure was developed by
counting the number of beer cans in their garbage. This backdoor method produced a considerably higher estimate of beer consumption.
Ethics of research. Most sociological research uses people as sources of information — as respondents to survey questions, participants in experiments or subjects of observation. That
is why in conducting research sociologists must abide by the code of ethics that puts forth the following basic principles:
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research.
2. Respect the subject's right to privacy and dignity.
3. Protect subjects from personal harm.
4. Preserve confidentiality.
5. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance.
6. Disclose all sources of financial support.
The ethical considerations of sociologists lie not only in the methods used, but in the way the results are interpreted. We recognize that sociologists will be influenced by their own
personal values in selecting questions for research but under no condition can a researcher allow his or her personal feelings to influence the interpretation of data. In conducting
research, sociologists must practice value neutrality in Max Weber's phrase. And as part of this neutrality, investigators have an ethical obligation to accept research findings even when
the data run counter to their own personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs.
The issue of value neutrality becomes especially delicate when one considers the relationship of sociology to government. Max Weber urged that sociology remain an autonomous
discipline, and not become unduly influenced by any one segment of society. According to his ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is
embarrassing to government.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary^ necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
что касается, план исследования, получить данные, наблюдения участника эксперимента, опрос, ненавязчивый, причинно-следственные отношения, проводить
эксперимент, искусственно созданная ситуация, подвергаться чему-либо, ясно установить, исследователь (2), испытывать неприязнь к, наблюдатель, испытывать
неудобства, с другой стороны, исказить, щекотливый вопрос, относительно чего-либо (2), сохранять беспристрастность, тесные связи, участвовать в опросах, анкета,
высокий процент, отклонить личную просьбу, ряд приемов в исследовании, нетрадиционный пример, взаимно исключающие, оценка (2), респондент, участник, объект
(предмет) наблюдения, честность, достоинство, конфиденциальность, сотрудничество, ни при каких условиях, нейтральность оценки, этическое обязательство, противоречить чему-либо, обнародовать информацию.
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) An... of sociological research is the decision ... how data should be collected. 2) Sociologists use different techniques ... for their research. 3) When sociologists wish to study a
possible ... they may conduct experiments. 4) An experiment allows the researcher ... to confirm ... to refute the hypothesis under study. 5) In conducting participant observation the
investigator may ... several problems. 6) If the researcher acts as ..., the members of the group may .... 7) If the researcher ... his identity and purpose, he is being somewhat... . 8) The
observer cannot allow the close associations that... develop to influence the conclusion of the study. 9) Almost all of us have responded to ... . 10) Since the questions are written, there is
some ... . 11) Sociologists from Arizona studied people's spending and eating habits by examining ... . 12) Two or more research methods used together may be ... . 13) Unobtrusive
methods have proved to be valuable as ... to other research methods.
14) The beer consumption experiment produced ... of beer consumption.
15) It is very important how sociologists ... of their research. 16) Sociology should remain ... and not become ... influenced by government. 17) Sociology must ... to reveal information
that is ... to government.
remain free, embarrassing, an autonomous discipline, unduly, interpret the results, a considerably higher estimate, a supplement, especially informative, household garbage,
guarantee of consistency, surveys of one kind or another, inevitably, disguises, dishonest, an outsider, feel uneasy, face, either ... or ... , cause-and-effect relationship, to generate data,
important aspect, as to.
IV. Study the following words and word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to obtain data scientifically, to be exposed to, to collect data through, to get an accurate sense of, to face some problems, to resent smth, to disguise, to raise a delicate question, to
provide smb with smth, to throw away, to include a variety of research techniques, to have some (no) impact on, to name a few examples, to prove to be ... , to abide by, under no
condition, to accept research findings, to run counter to, to urge, to remain free.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) What research techniques do sociologists regularly use to generate data? 2) What is considered to be the classic method of conducting an experiment? 3) What problems does the
sociologist face in conducting participant observation research? 4) What are the advantages of an interview and a questionnaire? 5) What basic techniques of unobtrusive measurement
do you know? 6) Are different research designs viewed as mutually exclusive? 7) What must sociologists abide by while conducting research? 8) What are the basic principles of the
code of ethics? 9) What else do the ethical considerations of sociologists lie in? 10) What is the main ethical category that sociologists should practice in conducting research? 11) What
is important in the relationship of sociology to government?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
research design, experiment, survey, unobtrusive measures, code of ethics, value neutrality.
III. Speak on the research design and research techniques in brief and illustrate your report with situations or examples of your own.
IV. Determine a social problem of daily life that is of interest to you and try to work out a research design and choose research techniques to obtain and analyze data
regarding it.
V. Speak on the ethics of research and comment on its basic prince pies developing the idea. Do you agree with all of them? Can you add any other principles to the
Code of Ethics?
VI. Read the following and comment on the topics suggested.
1) On the surface, the principles of the Code of Ethics seem quite clear-cut. It may be difficult to imagine how they could lead to any disagreement or controversy. However, many
delicate ethical questions cannot be resolved simply by following these six points. For example, should a sociologist engaged in participant-observation research always protect the
confidentiality of subjects? What if the subjects are members of a religious cult engaged in unethical and even illegal activities?
2) The Code of Professional Ethics expects sociologists to disclose all funding sources. But it does not state whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency may also
accept their idea on what should be studied. In this case sociologists turn from basic sociological research to applied research for government agencies and the private sector losing to a
great extent the freedom to choose their own problems and substituting the problems of their clients for those which might have interested them on purely theoretical grounds. Two
delicate questions arise here:
a) Is it possible that applied sociology, the use of the discipline for some specific and practical applications, should get more prominent at the expense of basic sociology, the objective
of which is to gain a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena?
b) And can it be that Max Weber's ideal of value neutrality might be undermined too?
c)
Revision Exercises on Unit Two
1. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit two and translate the following into English.
1) Как и обычный гражданин, социолог интересуется главными вопросами нашей повседневной жизни, но делает это используя научный метод исследования. 2) Социологи
не просто выходят на улицу и начинают задавать вопросы, они разрабатывают план исследования и отбирают технические приемы для сбора и анализа данных. 3)
Существует пять основных стадий научного исследования: определение проблемы, обзор литературы по данной проблеме, формулировка гипотезы, выбор плана исследования для сбора данных и подведение итогов. 4) Формулируя гипотезу, социологи не подразумевают, что она обязательно верна; они просто предполагают, что ее следует
изучить. 5) В зависимости от конечного результата исследования гипотеза может быть подтверждена, опровергнута или пересмотрена. 6) Существуют различные способы
отбора участников для проведения исследования, и случайная выборка является наиболее часто используемым методом. 7) Научные исследования не имеют целью ответить
на все вопросы относительно данной проблемы, поэтому очень часто вывод исследования завершает отдельную фазу, но создает идеи для будущих изысканий. 8) Так
оказалось и в случае с исследованием проблемы бездомных, проведенным американскими социологами. 9) Вывод исследования доказал, что бездомные, в основном,
умственно полноценные люди, но они оказались в ловушке тех экономических условий, которые привели их к бедственному положению и отчаянию. 10) Таким образом,
благодаря последовательному использованию научного метода исследователи изучили важную социальную проблему, и их выводы представляют интерес для социологов,
психотерапевтов и государственных деятелей. 11) Важным аспектом социологического исследования является решение вопроса о том, как следует отбирать необходимые
данные. 12) В нашем обществе люди отрицательно относятся к тому, что их подвергают обследованию. 13) Если исследователь скрывает свою личность и цель
исследования, он поступает нечестно, и это может исказить процесс его внедрения в наблюдаемую группу. 14) Возникает щекотливый вопрос относительно влияния
наблюдателя на группу и группы на наблюдателя. 15) Наблюдатель не может позволить, чтобы близкие отношения, которые неизбежно возникают, повлияли на выводы исследования. 16) Мы все подвергались опросам того или иного рода в форме либо интервью, либо анкетирования. 17) Людям труднее отказать в личной просьбе принять
участие в интервью, чем выбросить анкету. 18) Социологи университета штата Аризона изучали привычки людей в еде, исследуя домашние отбросы и мусор, оставленные
на улице. 19) В большинстве социологических исследований люди используются как источники информации: они являются респондентами в опросах, участниками экспериментов, объектами наблюдения. 20) Поэтому при проведении научных исследований социологи должны придерживаться Кодекса Этики. 21) Макс Вебер настаивал на
том, чтобы социология оставалась независимой наукой и ни в коем случае не подвергалась влиянию со стороны какого-либо института общества.
II. Reread the texts of unit two again and discuss the problem-questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction to the unit.
III. Comment on the following quotation, thinking like sociologists:
«The great strategy of science — the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact» (Thomas H. Huxley «Biogenesis and Abiogenesis», 1870).
Unit Three. ORGANIZING SOCIAL LIFE:
CULTURE
Looking Ahead
In unit three we begin our study of the organization of social life within human communities and societies. Unit three examines the basic element of any society: its culture. It considers
the development of culture from its roots in the prehistoric human experience, cultural universals and variations among cultures. The major aspects of culture — including language,
norms, sanctions and values — are defined and explored. The discussion focuses both on the general cultural practices found in all societies and on the wide variations that can
distinguish one society from another.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. How do aspects of a culture develop? How do they spread from one society to another?
2. What are the cultural universals? In what do they differ in different societies?
3. Through what process do human cultures change and expand?
4. Why do sociologists make a useful distinction between elements of material and nonmaterial culture?
5. Why is language viewed by sociologists as the foundation of every culture?
6. In what ways are norms and sanctions used to reward or to penalize human behavior?
7. Can you offer a list of basic human values typical of and common for all societies?
8. Should people maintain linguistic integrity within a particular society? Or should bilingualism be an important aspect of the educational policy in any country?
Text V. DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE
People live in human societies. A society is the largest form of human social organization that consists of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people
outside their area and share a common heritage or a common culture. Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted behavior. It includes ideas, values and customs of groups of
people. Members of a society learn this culture and transmit it from one generation to the next. They preserve their distinctive culture through literature, video recordings and other
means of expression. If it were not for the social transmission of culture, each generation would have to reinvent television, not to mention the wheel.
The study of culture is an important part of contemporary sociological work. Through advances in culture, human beings have come a long way from our prehistoric heritage. Human
beings have made dramatic cultural advances. We can send astronauts to the moon, we have such achievements as the symphonies of Beethoven, the paintings of Van Gogh, the poetry
of Byron and the novels of Dostoevsky.
Despite their differences, all societies have attempted to meet basic human needs by developing aspects of shared, learned behavior known as cultural universals. Cultural universals
are general practices found in every culture. Anthropologists compiled a list of such universals that includes the following: athletic sports, attempts to influence weather, bodily
adornment, calendar, cooking, courtship, dancing, dream interpretation,, family, folklore, food habits, funeral ceremonies, games, gift giving, language, laws, medicine, music, myths,
numerals, personal names, property rights, religion, sexual restrictions, tool making.
Many cultural universals are, in fact, adaptations to meet essential human needs, such as people's need for food, shelter and clothing. Yet, the manner in which they are expressed will
vary from culture to culture. For example, one society will attempt to influence its weather by seeding clouds with dry ice particles to bring about rain. Another culture may offer
sacrifices to the gods in order to end a long period of drought.
Each generation and each year most human cultures change and expand through the process of innovation and diffusion. An innovation is the process of introducing an idea or object
that is new to culture. There are two forms of innovation: a discovery and an invention. A discovery involves making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. The
identification of a new moon of Saturn is an act of discovery. By contrast, an invention results when existing cultural items are combined into a form that did not exist before. The bow
and the arrow, the automobile and the television are all examples of inventions, as are Protestantism and democracy. The term diffusion refers to the process by which a cultural item is
spread from group to group of from society to society, i.e. to the process of adopting ideas, technology and customs from other cultures. For example, breakfast cereal cornea originally
from Germany, candy from the Netherlands, chewing gum from Mexico and the potato chip from the America of the Indians] Diffusion can occur through a variety of means, among
them exploration, military conquests, missionary work, the influence of the mass media and tourism.
Sociologists make a useful distinction between elements of material] .and nonmaterial culture. Material culture refers to the physical OB technological aspects of our daily lives
including food items, houses] factories and raw materials. Nonmaterial culture refers to ways of using material objects and to customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments! and patterns
of communications.
Generally, the nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than the material culture is. Therefore, foreign ideas are viewed as more] threatening to a culture than foreign products are.
We are more willing to use technological innovations that make our lives easier than ideologies that change our way of seeing the world.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find In the text the English equivalents of the following:
человеческое общество, иметь общее наследие, ценности, не предавать из поколения в поколение, если бы не, пройти долгий путь развития, значительные успехи в
культуре, несмотря на различия, удовлетворить основные человеческие потребности в, со ставить список, вызвать дождь, предложить идею (мысль), иметь место
(происходить), четко разграничивать, убеждение, оказывать сопротивление чему-либо, рассматриваться, угрожать, испытывать желание, изменить способ видения мира,
распространяться, принимать идею (мысль).
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) People in a society are ... of people outside the area. 2) Culture is the ... of .learned, socially transmitted behavior. 3) We preserve our... culture through different means of expression.
4) The study of culture is an important part of ... social work. 5) Through advances in culture human beings have come a long way from our... . 6) Human cultures change and ... each
year. 7) Diffusion can occur ... . 8) Sociologists ... a useful distinction between elements of material and nonmaterial culture.
9) Material culture refers to the ... or ... aspects of our daily life.
10) ..., the nonmaterial culture is more resistant to ... than the material culture is. 11) Therefore, foreign ideas are viewed as more ... to a culture than foreign products are. 12) We are
more willing to use technological innovations that... than ideologies that....
make our lives easier, change our way of seeing the world, threatening, generally, change, physical, technological, make, through a variety of means, expand, prehistoric heritage,
contemporary, distinctive, totality, relatively independent.
IV. Study the following words and word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to consist of, independent of, outside, to share smth, if it were not for, to come a long way from, to involve doing smth, by contrast, to refer to, to be spread, to occur, to make a
distinction between, to bring about smth, to be resistant to, to be viewed as, to be willing to do smth.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) How do members of a society learn, transmit and preserve their distinctive culture? 2) Why do you think the study of culture is an important part of contemporary sociological
work? 3) What cultural universals do anthropologists consider to be the most common for all human societies? 4) What do cultural universals have in common and what differs them? 5)
How do human cultures change and expand? 6) Why do you think sociologists make a useful distinction between elements of material and nonmaterial culture? 7) How can you account
for the fact that nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than material culture?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
society, culture, cultural universals, innovation, discovery, invention, diffusion, material culture, nonmaterial culture.
III. Speak on human culture and Its aspects in brief and illustrate your reports with examples and situations of your own.
IV. Name the cultural universals and comment on them. Why do you think anthropologists have selected these items of human culture as cultural universals?
V. Comment on the statement that culture is the totality of learned socially transmitted behavior.
VI. Give your own examples of innovations (both discoveries and inventions) and diffusions in our daily life.
Text VI. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
The study of culture is an important part of contemporary sociological work. The major aspects of culture include language, norms, sanctions and values.
Language is a critical element of culture that sets apart humans from other living beings. Language is the foundation of every living culture though particular languages may differ in
striking ways. Language is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture It includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols and gestures of
nonverbal communication. People depend upon language for i describes and shapes the reality of a culture. The word symbols and the grammar of a language organize the world for us.
Linguists suggest the language may influence our behavior and interpretations of social reality But they also think that language is not a «given», rather it is culturally determined and it
leads to different interpretations of reality and certain phenomena. For example, in the United States you ask a hardware store clerk for a «flashlight», while in England, if you needed
this item you would have to ask for «an electric torch». Languages differ in the number of colors that are recognized. There are 11 basic terms in English. But the Russian and Hungarian
languages have 12 color terms
The language barrier extends even to nonverbal communication Many people in the United States interpreted Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev's hands-clasped gesture following a 1973
White House meeting with President Nixon as meaning «I've won» or «I'm the champ.» While that is indeed the American meaning of this gesture, Russian use the gesture as a symbol
of friendship.
Language is of great interest to the sociological perspective because it can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel and hear. It also influence the way we think about the people, ideas and
objects around us. A culture's most important aspects are communicated to people through language. It is for these reasons that the introduction of new languages into a society is such a
sensitive issue in many parts of the world.
While the United States remains resistant to official use of languages other than English, other societies experience the pervasiveness of the English language. The domination of English
stems from such factors as the demands of world trade, where English is used to negotiate many international business deals. In addition, English pervades rock music throughout the
world. The leading popular and rock groups record in English.
This does not mean that English is being enthusiastically welcomed in all countries. For example, «linguistic integrity» is somewhat a passion in France. The French minister of
culture limited the number of American songs that French radio stations and discotheques could play, but later dropped the idea when a survey revealed 'that many discos would
promptly have gone bankrupt. The government has gone so far as to establish committees to abolish Anglicism and invent suitable French alternatives, such as «informatique» for «data
processing». Responding with a dry sarcasm to such campaigns, the newspaper Le Monde suggested that the widely used term «sandwich» could be replaced with «two pieces of bread
with something in the middle». Less concise but more French, Le Monde observed.
All societies have particular ways of encouraging what they view as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what they consider to be improper conduct. «Put on some
clean clothes for dinner» and «Thou shall not kill,» just as respect for older people are examples of norms found in human culture. Norms are established standards of behavior
maintained by a society.
Sociologists distinguish between norms in two ways. First, norms are classified as formal or informal.
Formal norms have been written down and involve strict rules for punishment of violators. In human society we often formalize norms into laws, which must be very precise in defining
proper and improper behavior.
By contrast, informal norms are generally understood but are not precisely recorded.
Standards of proper dress are a common example of informal norms, while the rules of a card play are considered formal norms.
Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. When classified in this way, they are known as mores and folkways. Mores are norms highly necessary to the welfare of
a society. Thus human society has strong mores against murder, treason and child abuse. Each society demands obedience to its mores; their violation can lead to severe penalties.
Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern. Folkways very often are not shared in all societies. Let us look at one
fascinating example: the folkways that govern how far we should stand from people when interacting with them. The anthropologist Edward Hall suggests that Americans and northern
Europeans operate in four distance zones:
1. Intimate distance: up to 18 inches. That is the distance on lovemaking, wrestling, comforting, protecting and also of confrontation as in «Get your face out of mine!»
2. Personal distance: 18 inches to 4 feet. This is the conversational distance generally used with friends.
3. Social distance: 4 to 7 feet. Within this distance we conduct impersonal business, such as purchasing products or interviewing strangers.
4. Public distance: 12 feet and more. This is viewed as the proper distance for public occasions. It will be used to separate a speaker or a famous person from admiring fans.
It is important to note that these distances are not universally upheld in all cultures. Southern Europeans, Arabs and Latin Americans stand closer together when conversing and are more
likely to touch one another and maintain eye contact.
What happens when people violate a widely shared and understood norm? In this case they will receive sanctions. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social
norm. Positive sanctions are a pay raise, a medal, a word of gratitude or a pat on the back Negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment and even states of contempt.
The relationship between norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture's values and priorities. Values are those collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and
proper or bad, undesirable and improper in a culture.
They indicate what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right (or wrong). Values may be specific, such as honoring one's parents, or they
may be more general, such as health, love and democracy.
Values influence people's behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. There is a direct relationship between the values, norms and sanctions of a culture. For
example, if a culture views private property as a basic value, it will probably have laws against theft and vandalism. The values of a culture may change but most remain relatively stable
during any one person's lifetime.
The sociologist Robin Williams has offered a list of basic American values, including achievement, efficiency, material comfort, nationalism, equality and the supremacy of science and
reason over faith. Socially shared, intensely felt these values are a fundamental part of human lives in the United States.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following:
отделять ... от, значительно отличаться, очерчивать (придавать или принимать форму, вид), влиять на наше поведение, толкование (объяснение) реальности, языковой
барьер, неязыковое общение, представлять большой интерес для, передаваться через язык, именно по этим причинам, остро ощущаемая проблема, сопротивляться чемулибо, требования мировой торговли, вести переговоры о деловых сделках, отказаться от затеи, обанкротиться, учредить комитет, запретить, поощрить, расхолаживать, неправильное поведение, принятые нормы, поддерживать (утверждать), различать, нарушитель (закона), точный, простой пример, благосостояние общества, народный
обычай (нрав), повиновение чему-либо, нарушение (насилие), суровое наказание, разделять мнение, яркий пример, придерживаться взгляда, отражать, чтить своих
родителей, критерий оценки, прямая взаимосвязь.
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) Language is ... of culture that sets apart humans from other living beings. 2) People depend upon language, ... it describes and shapes our reality. 3) Languages differ in the number of
colors that are ... . 4) The language barrier ... to nonverbal communication.
5) A culture's most important aspects are communicated to people ... .
6) Many societies experience ... of the English language. 7) English ... rock music throughout the world. 8) English is not ... welcomed in all countries. 9) «Linguistic integrity» i.a
somewhat ... in France. 10) A survey .... that many discos had gone bankrupt. 11) The newspaper Le Monde responded to this campaign ... . 12) Violation of laws can lead to .... 13)
Folkways ... how far we should stand while ... with one another. 14) It is important... that this is not... upheld. 15) Values ... as criteria for ... the actions of others. 16) Most values remain
... during any one person's lifetime.
relatively stable, serve, evaluating, to note, universally, govern, conversing, severe penalties, with a dry sarcasm, revealed, a passion, enthusiastically, pervades, pervasiveness, through
language, extends recognized, for, a critical element
IV. Study the following words and word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to set apart ... from, to differ in striking ways, to depend upon, to influence smth, to lead to, to ask smb for, to extend to, to be of great interest to, it is for these reasons (this reason), a
sensitive issue, to remain resistant to, to experience, to stem from, to pervade smth, to drop the idea, to go bankrupt, to go so far as, to view smth as appropriate behavior, to be precise in
defining, to demand obedience to, to raise little (great) concern, to be universally upheld, to be (un)likely, to serve as, a direct relationship, to view ... as basic value, socially shared.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
l)Why is it stated that the major aspects of culture include language, norms, sanctions and values? 2) How can you account for the fact that language is a critical element of culture? 3)
Do you agree that people depend upon language in their life? State your reason. 4) Can you give any examples of gestures of nonverbal communication that differ in different
languages? 5) Why is language of great interest to the sociological perspective? 6) What can you tell us about the efforts of the French government to maintain the linguistic integrity in
France? 7) What are the other aspects of a culture besides language? 8) How do sociologists distinguish between norms? 9) What examples of formal and informal norms can you give?
10) Can you distinguish between mores and folkways? 11) What do you think about the classification of distance zones suggested by the anthropologist Edward Hall? 12) What do
sanctions indicate? 13) How can you prove that values influence people's behavior?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions: language, norms, mores, folkways, sanctions, values.
III. Speak on the elements of culture and their aspects in brief and illustrate your reports with examples or situations of your own taken from the Russian lifestyle.
IV. Speak about language as the foundation of culture.
V. Comment on the domination of other languages by English. Can you name any other reasons for this domination besides the two ones mentioned in the text? Will
English continue dominating the languages of the world?
VI. Comment on the efforts of the French government to maintain the linguistic integrity in France. Why aren't they effective? Do you share the sarcastic approach of
the newspaper Le Monde to this campaign?
VII. Express your opinion. Should we try to maintain the linguistic integrity in Russia? How can you account for the domination of English in our country? May it lead
to the domination of the American culture over the Russian ways and traditions? What do you suggest we should dot prevent it?
VIII. Comment on the statement that the United States remains resistant to official use of languages other than English and to the introduction of bilingual, bicultural
education. Don't you think that this hostility does more harm than good to the American culture robbing it of the cultural diversity?
IX.
Name and comment on the American values suggested by the sociologist Robin Williams. Can you go on with this list? Can you offer a list of basic Russian
values and account for your choice?
X.
Revision Exercises on Unit Three
I. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit three and translate the following into English.
1) Общество — это самая большая форма общественной организации людей. 2) Члены общества изучают свою культуру и передают ее из поколения в поколение. 3)
Благодаря успехам в культуре человечество прошло долгий путь от доисторических времен до настоящего времени. 4) Несмотря на различия, все человеческие общества
старались удовлетворить основные потребности человека, которые известны сейчас как культурные универсалии. 5) Многие культурные универсалии одинаковы у разных
народов, но выражаются они в разных культурах по-своему. 6) В каждом поколении каждый год большинство культур изменяется и расширяется благодаря процессу
нововведений и диффузий. 7) Социологи делают существенное различие между материальной и нематериальной культурой. 8) Мы более склонны использовать
технологические нововведения, которые облегчают нашу жизнь, чем идеологии, которые изменяют наше видение мира. 9) Язык —< это основа каждой культуры, хотя
отдельные языки сильно отличаются друг от друга. 10) Язык включает речь, письменные символы, числительные и жесты неязыкового общения. 11) Словесные символы и
грамматика языка организуют мир для нас. 12) Наиболее важные понятия культуры передаются людям через язык. 13) Господство английского языка в мире определяется
требованиями мировой торговли, где он широко распространен при заключении различных деловых сделок. 14) Все общества имеют свои средства поощрения правильного
поведения и механизмы запрещения и наказания неправильных поступков. 15) Нормы — эта принятые стандарты поведения, поддерживаемые всем обществом. 16)
Нарушение принятых норм может привести к серьезным наказаниям. 17) Ценности влияют на поведение людей и служат критериями оценки человеческих поступков.
II. Reread the texts of unit three again and discuss the problem-questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction to the unit.
III. Comment on the following quotation thinking like sociologists:
«... The first wisdom of sociology is this — things are not what they seem... Social reality turns out to have many layers of meaning. The discovery of each new layer changes the
perception of the whole* (Peter L.Berger «Invitation to Sociology», 1963).
Unit Fоur. SOCIALIZATION
Looking Ahead
Unit four presents the lifelong socialization process through which we acquire culture and are introduced to social structure. It examines the role of socialization in human development.
It begins by analyzing the debate over the relative influence of heredity and environment factors. Particular attention is given to how people develop perceptions, feelings and beliefs
about themselves. The unit explores the lifelong nature of the socialization process as well as important agents of socialization, among them the family, the school, peer groups, the
media and the workplace.
Learning Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What would happen if a child were reared in total isolation from other people?
2. Will identical twins show similarities in personality traits, behavior and intelligence if reared apart?
3. How do we come to develop self-identity?
4. What stages of socialization do we pass through during the life cycle?
5. How do the family, the peer group, the mass media and the workplace contribute to the socialization process?
6. Can you employ your own experience or the experience of your parents and other «significant others» in speaking on socialization and self-identity?
Text VII. THE ROLE OF SOCIALIZATION. SELF-IDENTITY AND SOCIALIZATION
Each culture has a unique character which shapes the values and behavior of its members. Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values and actions appropriate
to individuals as members of a particular culture. Socialization occurs through human interactions. We will, of course, learn a great deal from those people most important in our lives —
immediate family members, best friends, teachers and so forth. But we also learn from people we see on the street, on television and in films and magazines. Through interacting with
people as well as through our own observations, we discover how to behave «properly» and what to expect from others if we follow or challenge society's norms and values.
Socialization affects the overall cultural practices of a society and it also shapes the image that we hold of ourselves. In this sense, socialization experiences can have an impact on the
shaping of people's personalities In everyday speech, the term personality is used to refer to a person's typical patterns of attitudes, needs, characteristics and behavior.
All researchers would agree that both biological inheritance and the process of socialization play a role in human development. There is no consensus, however, regarding the relative
importance of these factors, which can lead to what is called the «nature versus nurture» (or «heredity versus environment») debate. We can more easily contrast the impact of heredity
and environment if we examine situations in which one factor operates almost entirely without the other.
Specialists have studied cases where children have been locked away or severely neglected, or raised in isolation and in these cases the consequences of social isolation have proved to
be greatly damaging because the children reacted and behaved like wild animals. Despite their physical and cognitive potential to learn, it was very difficult to adapt them to human
relationships and socialization.
Nowadays researchers are increasingly emphasizing the importance of early socialization experiences for humans that grow up in normal environments. It is now recognized that it is
not enough to care for an infant's physical needs, parents must also concern themselves will children's social environment. If children are discouraged from having friends, they will be
deprived of social interactions with peers that may be critical in their emotional growth.
The isolation studies discussed above may seem to suggest that inheritance can be dismissed as a factor in the social development of humans. However, the interplay between heredity
and environment factors is evident in the fascinating studies involving pairs of twins reared apart and brought up separately. Two genetically identical persons developed quite different
personalities and political and cultural values because of their differing socialization experiences. Certain characteristics, such as the twins temperaments, voice patterns and nervous
habits appear to be strikingly similar. But there are far greater differences between the twins' attitudes, values, types of mates chosen and even drinking habits. These studies have found
marked similarities in their tendency toward leadership or dominance, but significant differences in their need for intimacy, comfort and assistance.
Researchers have also been impressed by the following fact: usually twin pairs brought up together have similar scores on intelligence tests. At the same time identical twins brought
up in dramatically different social environments score quite differently on intelligence tests.
This finding indicates that, on the one hand, both genetic factors and socialization are influential in human development but, on the other hand, it supports the great impact of
socialization on development.
We all have various perceptions, feelings and beliefs about who we are and what we are like. Many sociologists and psychologists have expressed interest in how the individual
develops and modifies the sense of self because of social interaction.
There are different sociological approaches to the self. In the early 1900s the sociologists advanced the belief that we learn who we are by interacting with others, that our view of
ourselves comes not only from our personal qualities but also from our impressions how others perceive us.
Other scientists introduced the theory of the self which proposes that, as people mature, their selves change and begin to reflect great concern about the reactions of others. They used the
phrase «significant others» to refer to those individuals who are most important in the development of the self. Parents, friends, co-workers, coaches and teachers are often among those
who play a major role in shaping a person's self.
Contemporary sociologists have used the interaction approach to show that many of our daily activities involve attempts to convey impressions of who we are. We learn to create
distinctive appearances and to satisfy particular audiences. People very often blunder in their daily activities but we tend to ignore their mistakes. Therefore, the sound of a stomach
rumbling in a quiet room is almost always ignored. This polite behavior is intended to save face. And to maintain the proper image we often initiate face-saving behavior.
This sociological approach of the contemporary social scientists represents a logical progression of the sociological efforts begun by the sociologists of the past. The former stressed
the process by which we come to view ourselves and how we learned to interact with others, the latter emphasize the ways in which we consciously create images of ourselves for
others.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
уникальный, правильный (соответствующий), происходит: через взаимодействия людей, через наши собственные наблюдения, следовать нормам и ценностям общества
(нарушать), воз действовать на, полный (общий), опыт (переживание), биологическая наследственность, наследие, окружение, почти полностью, следствие, наносить ущерб,
познавательный потенциал,! подчеркивать важность, сейчас признано, заботиться о физических потребностях ребенка, проявлять интерес к общественному развитию детей,
не поощрять какое-либо действие, быть лишенным чего-либо, сверстники, взаимосвязь, воспитывать отдельно! (2), генетический, быть удивительно похожим (сходным),!
заметное сходство, значительное различие, умственное развитие,] значительно отличающийся, с одной стороны... с другой стороны, проявлять интерес к, в начале 1900-х,
выдвигать утверждение, ощущать (осознавать), взрослеть, сотрудники, играть главную роль, создавать впечатление, создавать определенный вид! (облик), удовлетворять
аудиторию, делать промах, иметь склонность, не замечать ошибки, представлять логическое продолжение, делать акцент, подчеркивать (выделять), создавать образ,!
первый... последний, спасти (сохранить) репутацию (престиж). 1
III. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) Each culture has a ... character which ... the values and behavior of its members. 2) We learn ... from the people most important in our lives. 3) Through interacting with people ...
through our own observations! we discover how to behave properly. 4) We learn what to expect from! others if we ... or ... society's norms and values. 5) Socialization] experiences can
... on the shaping of people's personalities. 6) There is] no ... regarding the relative importance of these factors in human] development. 7) The consequences of social isolation have
proved to] be greatly .... 8) Children ... in isolation very often react.... 9)... their physical and cognitive potential it is very difficult ... them to human] relationships. 10) Nowadays
researchers are ...emphasizing the importance of early socialization experience for humans. 11) It is not enough ... children's needs; parents must also ... with their social development.
12) Children should not be ... from having friends. 13) Inheritance should not be ... as a factor in the social development of 14) The ... between heredity and environment is evident. 15) TWO ... identical persons develop quite different personalities. 16) Certain
appear to be ... similar. 17) Identical twins brought up in ... different social ... score differently on ... . 18) Many sociologists have ... in how the individual develops and ... a sense of self.
19) In ... the sociologists... that we learn who we are by interacting with others. 20) Other sociologists
of the self. 21) The so-called ... play a ... role in shaping a person's self. 22) People very often ... in their daily activities. 23) This polite behavior is intended .... 24) ... we often initiate ....
to maintain the proper image, face-saving behavior, to save face, blunder, «significant others», major, introduced the theory, the early 1900s, advanced the belief, expressed an interest,
modifies, dramatically, environments, intelligence tests, characteristics, strikingly, genetically, interplay, dismissed, discouraged, to care for, concern themselves, increasingly, despite,
to adapt, raised, like wild animals, damaging, consensus, have an impact, follow, challenge, as well as, a great deal, unique, shapes.
IV. Study the following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
appropriate to smb, to learn a great deal from, and so forth, to affect smb, to shape an image, to refer to, both ... and, regarding smth, to be severely neglected, to be raised in isolation, to
adapt smth to smth, to care for, to concern oneself with, to discourage smb from doing smth, to be deprived of, to be reared apart, to be brought up, to develop a personality, because of,
to appear to be strikingly similar, far greater, to find marked similarities, to find significant differences, to have different scores on intelligence tests, to score quite differently on
intelligence tests, on the one hand ... on the other hand.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) Through what processes does socialization occur and shape people's personalities? 2) In what way do we discover how to behave properly and what to expect from others? 3) What
two factors play a role in human development? 4) What is a critical point in the «nature versus nurture» debate? 5) How can we contrast the impact of heredity and environment on
human development? 6) Why are researchers increasingly emphasizing the importance of early socialization experiences for humans nowadays? 7) Why can't we dismiss inheritance as
a factor in the social development of humans? 8) What interesting research has been done to prove that both the biological and the
sociological factors play a very important role in human development?! 9) What sociological approaches to the self-identity do you know?! Can you comment on each of them? 10) How
can you prove that all these sociological approaches represent a logical progression?
II. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:
socialization, personality, inheritance (heredity), environment, self-} identity.
III. Speak on socialization and self-identity in brief and illustrate your I report with situations and examples of your own.
IV. Comment on the study cases described in the text. Can you give I any other examples top rove that born socialization and inheritance play a very important role in
shaping personality and self?
V. Describe the experiences of your childhood. Did your parents care' only for your physical needs or did they concern themselves with your] social development?
Can you say that you were not deprived of social! interactions with your peers? Did your parents always approve of your choice of mates?
VI. Imagine that you are asked to make a speech on socialization and self-identity at a parents' meeting in your former school. Outline I the points you are going to
speak on at your report and develop the! ideas in front of your group-mates.
Text VIII. SOCIALIZATION AND THE LIFE CYCLE. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
Stages of Socialization. The socialization process continues throughout I all stages of the human life cycle. But it is important to understand that] we do not move from one stage to
another in the clear-cut way that we I are promoted from one school grade to another. Our social development I varies with the individual and the social situations in which that person!
must function. Thus, in our shift from childhood to adulthood we go I through a prolonged period of transition known as adolescence. After I that a person will pass through a series of
developmental stages.
The American psychologist Daniel Levinson in his book «The Seasons of a Man's Life» identified three major transitional periods that occur! primarily after adolescence. The first
transitional period, the early adult I transition, begins at about age 17 and extends to age 22. It marks the I time at which a male gradually enters the adult world, perhaps moving out of
the parental home, beginning a career, or entering a marriage. The second transitional period, the midlife transition, typically begins at about age 40. American men often experience a
stressful period of self-evaluation commonly known as the midlife crisis, in which they realize that they have not achieved basic goals and ambitions and have little time left to do so.
The final period of transition is the late adult transition which occurs between 60 and 65 years of age. At this time many Americans begin restricting their occupational duties and
preparing for retirement. However, it is important to note that the nation's attitude toward aging has undergone a dramatic change in recent decades. No longer is it widely accepted that
old people should simply sit around passively, waiting to die. Instead, there has been an increase in programs to socialize the elderly for meaningful pursuits and continued living.
Levinson's formulation was developed to describe the life cycle of men in the United States. While his conclusions are relevant for some women — especially those who follow the
traditional career patterns of men — they do not necessarily reflect the typical life for women. A key aspect of his work is the notion that men have a dream of what the adult world is
like — a vision that creates excitement and a sense of possibility. Yet, until recently, most women were socialized into visions of the future centering on marriage and children rather
than achievements in paid labor force.
One stage of development identified by Levinson, the midlife crisis, is clearly evident in both sexes. Social scientists are only beginning to explore the nature of the midlife crisis. In
one study they developed a scale ranking 43 stressful life events that may require important social adjustments and remobilization. The events ranking as most stressful include marriage,
death of a spouse or a close family member, a divorce, serving a jail term, a personal injury or an illness, a dismissal from work, retirement, business readjustment. The events ranking
least stressful include Christmas, vacation, a change in eating or sleeping habits, a change in social activities or recreation. The events ranking rather stressful are a change in the
financial state, troubles with in-laws, a change in living conditions, pregnancy, the gain of a new family member, troubles with the boss.
Creating a self does not occur in a week. It is a lifelong transformation which begins in the crib and continues as one prepares for death. The lifelong socialization involves many
different social forces which influence our lives and alter our self-images.
The family is the institution most closely associated with the process of socialization and is its most important agent. We experience socialization first as babies and infants living in
families; it is here that we develop an initial sense of self. Most parents seek to help their children to be socialized into the norms and values of both the family I and the larger society.
Like the family, the school is a very important agent in socializing children into the norms and values of our culture. Schools foster competition through built-in systems of reward and!
punishment such as grades and evaluations by teachers.
As a child grows older, the family becomes somewhat less important in his or her social development. Instead, peer groups increasingly assume the role of «the significant others».
Peer groups are friendship groups, youth gangs and special-interest clubs. Within the peer group young people associate with others who are approximately their own age and who often
enjoy a similar social status. A peer group maintains a meaningful system of rewards and punishments. The group may encourage a teenager to follow pursuits that the society considers
admirable. On the other hand, it can encourage someone to violate the society's norms and values.
Peer groups play a very important role in the transition to adult responsibilities. At home parents tend to dominate; at school the teenager must contend with teachers and administrators.
Bat within the peer group each member can assert himself or herself in a way that may not be possible elsewhere. Nevertheless, almost all adolescents in our culture remain
economically dependent on their parents, and most are emotionally dependent as well.
In the last 75 years such technological innovations, as mass media — radio, motion pictures and television — have become important agents of socialization. Television, in particular,
is a critical force in the socialization of children. It permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex forms of learning. Watching television is a passive
experience — one sits back and waits to be entertained. Critics of television are further alarmed by the fact that children (as well as adults) are exposed to a great deal of violence on
television. But television is not always a negative socializing influence. Creative programs can assist children in developing basic skills essential for schooling. In addition, television
programs and even commercials expose young people to lifestyles and cultures of which they are unaware. But still parents should not allow the TV set to become a child's favorite playmate and should monitor this aspect of a child's environment just as carefully as they evaluate teachers, play-mates and baby-sitters.
A fundamental aspect of human socialization involves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation in a workplace. Scientists have divided occupational socialization into
four phases. The first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational training appropriate for the desired job. The next phase is anticipatory socialization
which refers to the process of socialization whereby people get acquainted with norms, values, and behavior associated with a social position before actually assuming that status. For
example, some children «inherit» their occupations from their parents. The third phase, conditioning, occurs while a person starts actually occupying his work-celated role after
adjusting himself or herself to the aspects of the job. аnd, if the job proves to be satisfactory, the person will enter the fourth stage of socialization which is called continues
commitment. At this point, the job becomes an indistinguishable part of the person's self-identity.
Occupational socialization can be more intense immediately after one makes the transition from school to the job, but it continues through one's work history. Technological advances
may alter the requirements of the positions and necessitate some degree of resocialization, that is the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a
transition in one's life. In addition, people change occupations, employers or workplaces during their adult years.
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
I. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary.
II. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:
четко определенным способом, переводить из класса в класс, переход от детства к зрелости, проходить длительный период, переход (изменение), отрочество, проходить ряд
стадий развития, выявить три главных переходных периода, происходить (иметь место), главным образом, отмечать, постепенно, начать карьеру, вступать в брак, в
основном, переживать (испытывать) период стресса, самооценка, общеизвестно, достигать цели, честолюбие (стремление), преклонный, ограничивать свои служебные
обязанности, уход на пенсию, стареть, подвергаться значительному изменению, за последние десятилетия, пожилые, приносящее пользу занятие, уместный (относящийся к
делу), образец (модель), видение (предвидение), до недавних пор, четко (явно), очевидный, исследовать природу кризиса, шкала, классифицировать, приспособлять
(регулировать), наиболее тесно связанный, первоначальный, поощрять соревнование, вознаграждение и наказание, оценки (отметки), возрастные группы, сверстники (ровесники), принимать (на себя), приблизительно, подросток (2), нарушать (закон), обязанности взрослого, бороться (оспаривать), отстаивать свои права, тем не менее, быть
зависимым от, средства массовой информации, в частности, ролевая игра, быть встревоженным, подвергаться чему-либо, насилие, творческие программы; развить
основные умения (навыки), необходимые для школы; кроме того, рекламный ролик, стиль жизни, не подозревать о чем-либо, осуществлять контроль, оценивать (давать
оценку), вести себя соответствующим образом, занятие (должность), рабочее место, выбор, отбор, академическая подготовка, профессиональная подготовка,
познакомиться, унаследовать, неразличимый, самосознание, технологические достижения, изменять требования, делать необходимым, отбрасывать (за ненадобностью),
неизбежно.
III. Supply the missing worlds and word combinations choosing among those given below.
1) The socialization process continues ... all aspects of the human life ... . 2) Our social development... with the individual and the social situations in which the person must... . 3) The
first transition period .. the time at which a male gradually enters the ... . 4) The American nation's attitude toward ... has undergone a ... change in .... 5) Levinson's conclusions are ... for
women who follow the traditional ... of men. 6) Yet, ... , most women were socialized into the ... of the future ... on marriage and children. 7) Creating ... does not ... in a week. 8) The ...
socialization involves many ... which influence .our lives, and ... our self-images. 9) The family is the ... most closely associated with ... . 10) We ... socialization first as ... and ... living
in families. 11) The school is a very important... in socializing children into ... and ... of our culture. 12) Schools foster competition through ... systems of... and .... 13) With teenagers
peer groups ... the role of ... . 14) At home parents ... to dominate. 15) Television, ..., is a critical force in the socialization of children. 16) Critics of television are ... alarmed by the fact
that we are exposed to ... of violence. 17) ... may alter the requirements of the position and ... some degree of remobilization.
technological advances, necessitate, further, a great deal, in particular, tend, assume, «the significant others», built-in, reward, punishment, agent, the norms, the values, experience,
babies, infants, institution, the process of socialization, lifelong, different social forces, alter, a self, occur, until recently, visions, centering, relevant, career patterns, aging, dramatic,
recent decades, marks, adult world, varies, function, throughout, cycle.
IV. Study the following word combinations and use them in sentences of your own:
to go through a prolonged period of transition, to pass through a series of developmental stages, to enter the adult world, to begin a career, to experience a stressful period, to achieve
basic goals and ambitions, to undergo a dramatic change, no longer is it, to follow a career pattern, to create excitement, until recently, to be clearly evident, to develop a scale ranking,
to serve a jail term, to dismiss from work, troubles with in-laws, to develop an initial sense of self, to associate with, to be approximately one's own age, to encourage, smb. to do smth.
to violate, to assert oneself, to be dependent on, to be alarmed by, to assist smb in doing smth, to expose smb to smth, to monitor smth, to evaluate smb, to involve doing smth, to prove
to be satisfactory, during one's adult years.
COMPREHENSION EXERCISES
I. Reread the text and answer the following questions.
1) How can you prove that the socialization process is a lifelong process but it does not develop in a clear-cut way? 2) What book (and by whom) identifies the three major transitional
periods in the human life-cycle? Can you describe each stage? 3) Why was Levinson's formulation developed to describe the life cycle of men? 4) What are the most important agents of
socialization? 5) How can you prove that peer groups play a very important role in the transition to adult responsibilities? 6) What role do mass media play in the socialization of
children? 7) Why is it stated that occupational socialization is a fundamental aspect of human development?
II. Define the following key forms and memorize the definitions:
adolescence, the midlife crisis, a peer group, occupational socialization, career choice, anticipatory socialization, conditioning, continuous commitment, remobilization.
III. Speak on socialization and the life cycle in brief and illustrate your reports with situations and examples of your own.
IV. Describe the «seasons» of a woman's life and speak about the role and place of a woman in contemporary society in general and in Russia in particular.
V. Express your opinion.
Do you share the American nation's attitude toward aging? Speak on the problem of the elderly in Russia and compare their social status with that of the American old people. What
should we do to make our elderly people happy?
VI. Speak about the midlife crisis. Goon with the scale of stressful life events and rank them according to the degree of stress and adjustment. Interview your parents
and describe their experience thinking like sociologists.
VII. Speak about agents of socialization and describe your own experience.
VIII. Comment on the role of the mass media in Russia. Give examples of their negative and positive socializing influence thinking like sociologists.
IX. Speak on occupational socialization and its phases. Illustrate each phase describing your parents experience in this aspect.
Revision Exercises on Unit Four
I. Revise the active vocabulary and the definitions of the key terms of unit four and translate the following into English.
1) Каждая культура имеет уникальный характер, который формирует ценности и поведение ее членов. 2) Через взаимодействия с людьми, а также благодаря собственным
наблюдениям мы осознаем, как вести себя правильно и чего ожидать от других. 3) Процесс становления личности влияет на всю культурную практику общества, а также
создает представление о том, как мы ощущаем себя. 4) Все исследователи соглашаются, что как биологическая наследственность, так и процесс вхождения личности в
общество играют важную роль в развитии личности. 5) Сейчас признано, что недостаточно заботиться о физических потребностях ребенка; родители должны проявлять
интерес к общественному развитию своих детей. 6) Мы все имеем различные представления и убеждения о том, какие мы. 7) Существуют различные социологические
подходы к понятиям «личность» и «самосознание». 8) Все эти подходы составляют логическую последовательность, либо подчеркивая процессы, с помощью которых мы
начинаем осознавать себя и взаимодействовать с другими, либо выделяя способы, благодаря которым мы сознательно создаем образы себя для других. 9) В нашем
движении от младенчества к зрелости мы проходим длительный период развития, включающий детство и отрочество. 10) В своей книге «Сезоны мужской жизни» психолог
Даниэль Левинсон описал жизненный цикл мужчин в Соединенных Штатах. 11) Его выводы не подходят для описания жизненного цикла женщины, так как до недавнего
времени будущее женщины ограничивалось вступлением в брак и воспитанием детей, а не достижениями в трудовой деятельности, приносящей доход. 12) Социологи
стараются изучить природу кризиса, который часто наступает в середине жизни человека. 13) Они создали шкалу, включающую 43 жизненных события, которые вызывают
стресс и требуют изменения социального положения личности в обществе. 14) Существуют различные социальные силы, которые влияют на нашу жизнь и изменяют наше
представление о себе. 15) Одной из таких сил являются возрастные группы, так как внутри своей возрастной группы молодые люди общаются со своими сверстниками и
обладают одинаковым социальным статусом. 16) Средства массовой информации (радио, кино и телевидение) играют большую роль в становлении личности. 17)
Телевидение является пассивным способом приобретения жизненного опыта, и очень часто оно не поощряет использование сложных форм обучения. 18) Важными
факторами вхождения личности в общество являются работа, рабочее место и взаимоотношения с сослуживцами. 19) Технологические достижения могут изменить
требования, предъявляемые к работе, и вызвать изменения в социальном положении людей. 20) Кроме того, люди меняют свою работу, своих работодателей и рабочие
места во время своей взрослой трудовой деятельности.
II. Reread the texts of unit four again and discuss the problem-questions given in the learning objectives in the introduction to the unit.
III. Comment on the following quotation thinking like sociologists:
«Children have more need of models than of critics» (Joseph Joubert «Pensees», 1774).
РЕКОМЕНДУЕМАЯ ЛИТЕРАТУРА
1.
2.
3.
Milton M. Gordon. The Scope of Sociology. – 1988
Peter L. Berger. Invitation to Sociology. – 1993
Англо-русский социологический словарь.
Учебное издание
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКЗАНИЯ И УЧЕБНЫЕ ИЗДАНИЯ
По профессиональному английскому языку к аудиторной работе
(для 3 курса заочного отделения специальности «Социология» )
СОСТАВИТЕЛИ:
Маргарита Леоновна Крамаренко
Ольга Игоревна Шовкопляс