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Ancient Greece
Introduction
creative thought. Greek thinkers laid the
Ancient Greece was the birthplace of
foundations of science and philosophy by
Western civilization about 2,500 years ago.
seeking
The magnificent achievements of the ancient
happened in the world around them. Greek
Greeks in government, science, philosophy,
writers created new forms of expression,
and the arts still influence our lives.
which
Greek
civilization
developed
chiefly
in
logical
explored
explanations
human
for
what
personalities
and
emotions. Greek civilization reached its height
small city-states. A city-state consisted of a
in Athens during the mid-400's B.C.
city or town and the surrounding villages and
farmland. The Greek city-states were fiercely
independent
and
often
quarreled
The land
among
The territory of ancient Greece consisted
themselves. But their
chiefly of a mountainous
small
size
and
peninsula that jutted into
constant
rivalry
had
the
certain
advantages.
numerous islands near the
Citizens of a city-state
peninsula, and the west
were strongly patriotic,
coast of Asia Minor (now
and many citizens took
part
part in public affairs.
The
most
advanced
Mediterranean
of
Sea,
Turkey).
The
peninsula
made
up
mainland
Greece.
It
city-states established
separated the Aegean Sea
the
and the Ionian Sea. A thin
world's
first
democratic
strip of land linked the
governments.
The
best-known
city-states
southern part of the mainland, called the
were Athens and Sparta.
The
ancient
never
mainland.
became united into a nation. However, a
Rocky
common
Greek
Peloponnesus, to the northern part of the
language,
city-states
much
of
ancient
Greece. The most fertile land lay in the small
bound the people together. The Greeks called
valleys and along the coast. In those areas,
themselves Hellenes and their land Hellas.
the Greeks established their city-states. The
They thought of themselves as different from
city or town of each city-state served as a
all
center of trade, government, and religion.
peoples,
whom
and
covered
culture
other
religion,
land
they
called
barbarians.
The Greeks usually fortified a hill, called an
The ancient Greeks prized their freedom
acropolis, within the city for defense. In
and way of life. This way of life stressed the
addition, walls surrounded some cities to
importance of the individual and encouraged
protect them from invaders. At the center of
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each city was the agora—an open area that
of each community in time developed their
served as a marketplace and meeting place.
own customs and dialect. The two main
Ancient Greece had a warm, dry climate.
groups of Greek peoples were the Dorians
Summers were hot, and winter temperatures
seldom
dropped
below
freezing.
and Ionians.
Annual
By
the
700's
B.C.,
the
Greek
world
rainfall on the mainland ranged from as much
consisted of many small, independent city-
as 50 inches on the west coast to less than 20
states. Within each city-state, the Greeks
inches on the east.
distinguished
Ancient Greece lacked adequate farmland,
between
citizens
and
noncitizens. Only citizens could own land and
rainfall, and water for irrigation, and so crop
take
production
consisted of women, slaves, and serfs. Unlike
provided
was
limited.
mountains
in
government.
of
marble
for
considered personal property.
building construction and clay
As a result of trade, many city-
for making bricks and pottery.
states
But
other
noncitizen population made up
mineral deposits. Timber was
of Greeks from other city-states
plentiful at first. However, it
and of foreigners.
and
Greece
had
few
slaves,
Noncitizens
amounts
limestone
huge
The
part
serfs
also
were
had
not
a
large
became increasingly scarce as
the people cut down many
Family life
trees without replanting the
The
forests.
The shortages of food and
husband
headed
household
in
and
responsible
was
ancient
for
ancient Greeks to depend on
household
overseas
children. In prosperous families,
needed
and
ran
its
members.
for
wife
Greece
natural resources forced the
trade
The
the
raised
the
the
goods. The poor conditions at home also led
the wife supervised slaves, who looked after
many Greeks to found overseas colonies and
the children and did most of the work.
trading posts. In this way, the Greek world
Women also spun thread and wove cloth,
expanded
the
even in wealthy families. A woman was under
Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea and
the legal control of her father before she
came to include southern Italy and the island
married. After marriage, she was under the
of Sicily
legal control of her husband.
along
the
shores
of
Greek
The people
At
that
time,
usually
arranged
their
children's marriage. Most girls married in their
Greek civilization began to develop about
2000 B.C.
parents
people
midteens, but many men married around age
from
30. When a girl married, she received her
somewhere to the north arrived in Greece and
share of the family's money or property as a
established small farming villages. The people
dowry (gift). Her husband controlled the
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dowry but had to return it if they divorced.
Higher
education
in
ancient
Greece
Normally, the dowry would pass on to her
consisted of the study of law, medicine,
children.
philosophy, or rhetoric (public speaking). In
the 300's B.C., the Greek philosopher Plato
Education
founded a school in Athens known as the
In general, only the children of citizens
Academy.
Plato's
most
brilliant
pupil,
received an education in ancient Greece. Very
Aristotle, later founded a similar school in
few girls attended school, but some learned
Athens, the Lyceum.
to read at home. Most children also learned a
few practical skills from their parents or from
Food, clothing, and shelter
slaves. City-states differed in the kind of
The Greek diet was based on wheat and
education they valued.
barley, which were used to make bread,
In Athens, teachers
operated
cakes, and porridge. The Greeks
separate
also ate a variety of fruits and
general
vegetables. Their chief sources of
and
protein were eggs, poultry, and
physical education. The
fish. The Greeks used olive oil,
general
and they sweetened food with
schools
for
studies,
music,
schools
reading,
taught
writing,
arithmetic.
At
and
honey.
music
Greek men and women wore a
the
belted garment of linen or wool.
small, harplike lyre. The
Most men's garments hung to the
physical
knees. A woman's garment fell to
education
activities
running,
or
sacrifices,
lamb, and goat.
to sing and to play the
aulos
animal
they enjoyed roasted pork, beef,
school, students learned
flutelike
After
included
jumping,
the
and
ankles.
In
cold
weather,
Greeks draped a cloak over their
wrestling. Older boys learned to handle such
shoulders and arms. Sandals were the chief
weapons as the spear and sword.
footwear.
Education in Sparta differed greatly from
Greece's mild climate enabled the people
education in Athens. The Spartans wanted to
to carry on many activities outdoors, and so
build a tough, warlike people, and considered
most houses were small and simple. Most
reading and writing much less important than
poor families lived in one- or two-room
military training. At the age of 7, boys were
houses built of sun-dried bricks with floors of
sent to military camps, where they learned to
hard-packed earth. Wealthy Greeks lived in
accept severe discipline and to endure harsh
larger, more comfortable houses built around
conditions. Even girls engaged in physical
a courtyard. The houses had separate rooms
competition,
for cooking, eating, and sleeping. Stones or
which
shocked
most
Greeks
outside Sparta.
tiles covered the floors.
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Religion
festivals, were held every four years in honor
The Greeks believed that certain deities
of Zeus. Victory in the games was the highest
(gods and goddesses) watched over them and
honor an athlete could achieve.
directed daily events. Families tried to please
household
deities
with
offerings
and
Farming & Manufacturing
ceremonies. Each city-state honored one or
Most ancient Greeks lived by farming or
more deities as protectors of the community
herding. Most farmers worked alone or with
and held annual festivals in their honor.
the help of a few slaves. The entire family
The Greeks believed that their deities
helped with planting and harvesting. Farmers
could foretell the future. People flocked to
raised pigs, grew wheat and barley, and
shrines called oracles to consult priests and
tended olive groves and vineyards. Sheep and
priestesses. Deities supposedly spoke through
goats grazed on poorer land. The Greeks
the
priests
priestesses
questions
and
to
answer
and
reveal
produced
surplus
of
olive oil, wine, and wool,
which they exported.
the future.
The
Greek
a
ancient
Greeks
deities
manufactured
human
products by hand. Many
beings, except for their
craftsmen worked alone.
immortality
and
There were also factories
powers.
with 20 to more than
resembled
superhuman
all
For example, they showed such emotions as
100 workers, many of them slaves. These
love, jealousy, and anger. The chief deities
workers specialized in the different skills
lived on Mount Olympus and were known as
needed to make such goods as pottery,
Olympians. Zeus and his wife, Hera, ruled
armor, and clothing. Individual city-states
over
became
Olympus.
Other
Olympians
included
known
for
certain
products.
For
Aphrodite, goddess of love; Apollo, god of
example, Athens was famous for its decorated
music and light; Ares, god of war; and
pottery, Megara for woolen garments, and
Athena, goddess of wisdom.
Corinth for jewelry and metal goods.
Large
crowds
gathered
for
religious
festivals in ancient Greece. At these festivals,
athletes
competed
as
Philosophy originated in ancient Greece
wrestling, boxing, foot and chariot races,
during the 500's B.C. The word philosophy
jumping,
and
Religious
comes from two Greek words meaning love of
festivals
also
colorful
wisdom. Many of the questions that were
plays.
asked by Greek philosophers would today be
Several religious festivals brought together
considered subjects of scientific inquiry. The
people from throughout the Greek world. The
earliest philosophers speculated about the
processions,
in
javelin
such
throwing.
included
and
events
Philosophy
feasts,
performances
of
Olympic Games, the most famous of these
underlying substance of the universe and how
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the universe operated. Later philosophers
Some of their conclusions anticipated findings
investigated the nature of knowledge and
of
reality and sought to define such notions as
Democritus said all things consisted of atoms,
good and evil.
tiny bits of matter that cannot be divided. In
Socrates,
the
400's
B.C.,
Greek
stated that the earth revolved around the
philosophers. Socrates taught by carefully
sun. But most Greek thinkers argued that the
questioning
sun, stars, and planets moved around a
his
most
Aristotle
In
the 200's B.C., Aristarchus of Samos first
the
and
science.
are
considered
Plato,
modern
important
listeners
to
expose
the
weaknesses of their ideas and arguments.
Plato
explored
justice,
and
such
good
subjects
as
government.
stationary earth.
beauty,
Aristotle
Architecture
summed up the achievements of
Greek
architects,
Greek philosophy and science. His
sculptors, and painters made
authority on many topics remained
important
contributions
to
unquestioned for more than 1,000
the
They
to
years.
achieve an ideal of beauty
Most people in ancient Greece
arts.
based
on
strove
harmonious
were suspicious of philosophers
proportions.
and their theories. They continued
influential architectural works
to believe in traditional values and
were
traditional religion. In 399 B.C., an
temple
Athenian jury sentenced Socrates
arrangement
of
to
around
long,
death,
charging
him
with
corrupting young men and not believing in
chamber.
The
the gods of the city.
influential
styles
temples.
most
A
Greek
consisted
a
Greeks
for
The
of
an
columns
inner
developed
three
columns—the
simple
Doric, the graceful Ionic, and the ornate
Science
Corinthian. The best-known temples were
Greek scientists, like Greek philosophers,
believed
in
an
orderly
universe,
built on the Acropolis in Athens during the
which
400's B.C.
operated according to laws that people could
discover. They based many of their theories
Government
on logic and mathematics. They also made
A small group of wealthy men governed
careful observations of nature and, at times,
most city-states of ancient Greece. This form
conducted experiments. But Greek scientists
of government, in which a few powerful
rarely tried to solve practical problems, and
people rule, is called an oligarchy. During the
so their discoveries had little influence on
500's B.C., some city-states began to move
technology and everyday life.
toward democracy. They granted all citizens
The
ancient
Greeks
were
pioneers
in
the right to vote on government policies, hold
medicine, physics, biology, and mathematics.
political office, and serve on a jury. However,
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many poor citizens could not afford the time
during this period. For example, the Greek
from
dramatists
making
democratic
a
living
to
government.
participate
Aeschylus,
Sophocles,
and
women
Euripides wrote many of their masterpieces.
and slaves had no political rights, even in the
The leading Greek architects and sculptors
democracies.
built the Parthenon on the Acropolis.
Athens
became
However,
in
successful
Sparta was the most powerful oligarchy
democracy of ancient Greece during the 400's
in ancient Greece. Citizens made up only
B.C. In 508 B.C., an Athenian statesman
about 10 percent of the population. Most
named Cleisthenes extended voting rights in
people were serfs who farmed the land. Two
the assembly to all free adult men. He
kings, who inherited their thrones, headed
created a council of 500 members, which was
the army. Sparta was governed by 5 officials,
open to any citizen. His reforms thus gave
called ephors, and the gerousia, a council
every
made up of 28 elders and the kings. Citizens
citizen
a
the
chance
most
to
serve
in
the
government. Every male Athenian citizen had
elected
the right to vote in an assembly that passed
members of the gerousia to life terms. Sparta
laws and determined government policies.
had a citizen assembly. But citizens could not
The voters also elected Athenian generals.
propose issues for debate in the assembly.
Each year, the citizens drew lots to select a
Among the Greek city-states, only Sparta had
council of 500 men. This
ephors
to
one-year
terms
and
a standing army.
council ran the day-to-day
business
of
government
Military
and prepared the bills that
Most
city-states
trained
the assembly debated and
young men in the art of warfare
voted on. Jurors were also
and
chosen
Some
male citizens to take up arms in
wealthy Athenians disliked
time of war. Athens had the
their
largest navy, which included
by
lot.
system
of
required
able-bodied
government. They felt that
hundreds
the
each powered by 170 oarsmen.
poor
dominated
government
and
the
took
of
all
large
warships,
A battle formation known as
advantage of the rich. Most
a
phalanx
dominated
Greek
Athenians,
however,
warfare from the 600's to the
cherished their democracy.
300's B.C. To form a phalanx,
During the 400's B.C., Athens reached its
armed foot soldiers lined up in a loose
height of power and prosperity and was the
formation, usually eight rows deep. On the
center of culture in the Greek world. Pericles
battlefield, two opposing phalanxes marched
was the leading Athenian statesman from 461
toward each other. Then, the soldiers fought
to 429 B.C. Many remarkable literary and
with spears and swords until one side broke
artistic accomplishments took place in Athens
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and ran.
The Hellenistic Age
Alexander
the
Great,
Philip's
time, Greek culture continued to influence the
son,
lands Alexander had conquered, and Eastern
succeeded his father at the age of 20. In
ideas reached Greece.
334 B.C., Alexander carried out Philip's plan
to invade Persia. In a brilliant campaign,
Alexander
conquered
the
entire
The Greek heritage
Persian
The ancient Greeks laid the foundations of
Empire in less than 10 years. His empire
Western civilization. Modern democracies owe
extended from Greece to India. Alexander's
a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the
bloody conquests furthered the spread of
people, trial by jury, and equality under the
Greek ideas and the Greek way of life to
law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many
Egypt and the Near East. Alexander died in
fields
323 B.C. His generals divided his large empire
including
biology,
into successor states, with Greece remaining
philosophy,
and
under Macedonian control. The period of
such important literary forms as epic and lyric
Greek history following Alexander's death is
poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their
known as the Hellenistic Age. The period
pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks
lasted until 146 B.C. in Greece, when the
created an ideal of beauty that strongly
Romans took control of Greece. During that
influenced Western art.
that
rely
on
systematic
thought,
geometry,
history,
physics.
They
Krentz, Peter. "Greece, Ancient." World Book Student. World Book, 2009. Web. 30 Nov. 2009.
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introduced