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Nouns‫األسماء‬
1. Nouns are names of persons, places, things, ideas, qualities, activities, etc.
.‫ األسماء هي أسماء ألشخاص و أماكن و أشياء و أفكار و صفات و نشاطات‬-1
Common and Proper Nouns‫األسماء الشائعة و أسماء العلم‬
2. Common nouns name the kind or class of a persons, places, etc. Proper nouns are always
capitalized.
.‫ أسماء العلم دائما ً تكون بأحرف كبيرة‬.‫الخ‬.. ‫ األسماء الشائعة تسمي الصفوف و األشخاص و األماكن‬-2
George Washington
Costa Rica
Collective Nouns ‫أسماء الجموع‬
3. Collective nouns are the names of collections or groups of persons, places, things, etc.
.‫الخ‬.. ‫ أسماء الجموع هي أسماء المجموعات أو مجموعة من األشخاص و األماكن و األشياء‬-3
Team
jury
audience
These nouns are singular in form, but may be singular or plural in usage. Whenever the noun is
presented so that we think of the whole group, it should be used with a singular verb.
‫ حينما يُقدم االسم حيث أننا أوالً نفكر في‬.‫هذه األسماء جميعها مفردة في الشكل و لكنها ممكن أن تكون مفردة أو جمع في االستخدام‬
.‫ يجب أن يستخدم مع فعل مفرد‬، ‫كل المجموعة‬
Their family always eats at 6:00.
Whenever the noun is presented so that we think primarily of the individual members of the group,
it should take a plural verb.
. ‫ يجب أن يأخذ فعل جمع‬، ‫حينما يُقدم االسم حيث أننا نفكر أوالً في بأعضاء المجموعة المفردين‬
The family were brought to the restaurant one by one in separate cars.
(See also Aids 143 and 150.)
Forming the Plurals of Nouns‫تشكيل الجمع من األسماء‬
4. Most plurals are formed by adding S.
.S ‫ معظم الجمع يتشكل بإضافة‬-4
Phone
phones
basket
baskets
5. Nouns ending in S, Z, CH, SH, or X form plurals by adding ES.
)es( ‫ ) تشكل الجمع بإضافة‬ch, sh, x ),s, z ‫ األسماء التي تنتهي ب‬-5
Glass
glasses
tax
taxes
6. Add S to form plurals of letters and numbers.
. ‫) لألحرف و األرقام لتشكل الجمع‬s( ‫ أضف‬-6
M
Ms
8 8s
7. Nouns ending in Y form plural in two ways:
: ‫ تشكل الجمع بطريقتين‬Y ‫ األسماء التي تنتهي ب‬-7
a. If a consonant precedes the Y, change the Y to I and add ES.
)ES( ‫ و نضيف‬I ‫) إلى‬Y( ‫ حرف ساكن نبدل‬Y)( ‫أ) إذا سبق‬
Baby babies
candy candies
b. If a vowel precedes the Y, follow the general rule for plurals, that is, add an S.
.‫) حرف صوتي نتبع القاعدة العامة للجمع‬Y( ‫ إذا سبق‬-‫ب‬
8. Nouns ending in O form plurals in two ways:
: ‫) تشكل الجمع بطريقتين‬O( ‫ األسماء التي تنتهي ب‬-8
a. If a consonant precedes the O, add ES.
.ES‫) حرف ساكن نضيف‬O( ‫إذا سبق‬-‫أ‬
Tomato tomatoes
hero heroes
b. If a vowel precedes the O, add S.
.S ‫ نضيف‬O ‫ إذا سبق حرف صوتي‬-‫ب‬
Radio radios
studio studios
Note the musical terms and instruments ending in O form the plural by adding S.
Piano pianos
alto altos
9. Some hyphenated nouns form their plurals by adding S to the first word.
.‫ إلى الكلمة األولى‬SS ‫ بعض الكلمات التي تتصل ببعضها بشرطة تشكل الجمع بإضافة‬-9
Mother-in-law
mothers-in-law
1
10. The plurals of proper nouns are formed by adding S. THE or a umber usually precedes the
plural of proper nouns.
‫الحظ أنه عندما ينتهي الجمع‬.‫ أو العدد الذي يسبق عادة الجمع من األسماء الصحيحة‬S, THE ‫ جمع أسماء العلم يشكل بإضافة‬-10
.ES‫) فإن الجمع يكون بإضافة‬S( ‫ب‬
Mary the Marys
Troy the Troys
- Note that when a proper ends in S, the plural is formed by adding ES.
Jones
the Joneses
Thomas
the Thomases
Unusual Plural Nouns‫أسماء الجمع الغير عادية‬
11. Some nouns are always plural in form and plural in construction (requiring plural verbs).
.)‫ بعض األسماء تكون دائما ً جمع في الشكل و في التركيب (تحتاج إلى أفعال جمع‬-11
Clothes
proceeds
surroundings
Environs remains
thanks
Pants
riches
trousers
12. Some nouns are always plural in form but singular in construction (requiring singular verbs).
.)‫( تحتاج إلى أفعال مفردة‬.‫ بعض األسماء هي دائما ً جمع في الشكل و لكنها مفردة في التركيب‬-12
Electronics
gymnastics
Mathematics
news
Genetics
linguistics
Billiards
United States
13. Some nouns have tricky plural forms which must be studied.
.‫ بعض األسماء لها أشكال مميزة و يجب أن تدرس‬-13
a. some are the same in the singular and plural form.
.‫ بعضها تكون نفسها في المفرد والجمع‬-‫أ‬
Swine
swine
sheep sheep
Salmon salmon
moose moose
b. Some form the plural by applying the-forming rules of the language from which the word
originated (usually Latin)
.‫ بعضها يشكل الجمع باستخدام األحكام األصلية للغة التي أتت منها الكلمة‬-‫ب‬
Datum
data
radius
radii
Crisis
crises
alumnus alumni
Index
indices
antenna
antennae
c. Some are completely irregular and must be memorizes.
.‫ بعضها شاذة تماما ً و يجب أن تُحفظ‬-‫ت‬
Child children
woman
women
Mouse mice
goose
geese
Tooth teeth
wife
wives
Loaf
loaves
foot
feet
The Possessive Case of Nouns‫حالة تملك الكلمات‬
14. The possessive case indicates that the noun possesses, has or owns something. Possession is
shown by an apostrophe and an S.
a. for most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and then an S.
)S( ‫ نستطيع أن نر حالة التملك بإضافة فاصلة و‬. ‫ حالة التملك تشير أن االسم يتملك أو يمتلك شيء ما‬-14
)S( ‫ من أجل معظم األسماء المفردة نضيف فاصلة و من ثم‬-‫أ‬
captain captain’s vest
boy
boy’s dog
b. for most plural nouns ending in S, add an apostrophe after the S.
.S ‫أضف فاصلة علوية بعد‬S ‫ من أجل معظم األسماء التي تنتهي ب‬-‫ب‬
captains
captains’ vests
boys boys’ dogs
15. Irregular plural forms may require an ‘S.
. ‘s ‫ أشكال الجمع الغير نظامية تحتاج إلى‬-15
The men
the men’s jackets
16. Most proper nouns which are singular, but which end in S, require an ‘s.
.S‘ ‫ تحتاج إلى‬S ‫ معظم أسماء العلم المفردة و التي تنتهي ب‬-16
Keats
Keats’s poetry
2
17. With a hyphenated noun, show possession by placing the ‘S after the last element of the term.
.‫‘ بعد آخر عنصر من العبارة‬S ‫ في الكلمات المرتبطة ببعضها بشاحطة يمكن أن نشاهد التملك بوضع‬-17
Brother-in-law my brother-in-law’s house
18. Two or more nouns in a compound construction show possession in two ways:
: ‫ اثنين أو أكثر من األسماء في التراكيب المركبة تشكل التملك بطريقتين‬-18
a. Use ‘S after the last element to show joint possession.
.‫ بعد آخر عنصر لتظهر التملك المترافق‬S‘ ‫ استخدم‬-‫أ‬
Chan and Tobe’s home (they both live in or own the same home)
b. Use ‘S after each element to show separate possession.
.‫ بعد كل عنصر لتظهر التملك المنفصل‬S‘ ‫ استخدم‬-‫ب‬
Chan’s and Tobe’s homes (each lives in or owns his own home)
19. Sometimes the noun which is modified by the possessive noun form is not expressed.
.‫ في بعض األحيان االسم الذي يوصف باسم تملك فإن الشكل ال يُعبر عنه‬-19
Whose keys did you give me?
I gave you Karen’s.
PRONOUN‫الضمائر‬
20. Pronouns are words used in place of nouns, usually to avoid repetition of the nouns to which
they refer. They designate their nouns without naming them.
‫فهم يشيرون إلى األسماء بدون أن‬.‫ الضمائر هي كلمات تستخدم عوضا ً عن األسماء لتجنب تكرار األسماء التي يشيرون إليها‬-20
.‫يسموهم‬
Pronouns and Their Antecedents
21. The relationship between a pronoun and the noun to which it refers—its antecedent—must be
clear. If pronouns are vague, unclear, or carelessly used, the sentence should be rewritten.
‫ إذا كانت الضمائر غامضة و غير واضحة أو استعملت‬.‫ العالقة بين الضمير و االسم الذي يشير إليه يجب أن تكون واضحة‬-21
.‫بشكل ال مبال يجب أن تعاد كتابة الجملة‬
Poor: Peter told Emma to take some vitamins.
Better: Peter told Emma to take some vitamins.
Poor: Mary read that in Norway they eat a lot of potatoes.
Better: Mary read that Norwegians eat a lot of potatoes.
Personal Pronouns ‫الضمائر الشخصية‬
22. Personal pronouns are so commonly used that it a good idea to memorize the following chart
showing the declension of the personal pronoun.
. ‫ الضمائر الشخصية تستخدم بشكل شائع‬-22
NUMBER PERSON
NOMINATIVE
(SUBJECTIVE
POSSESSIVE
OBJECTIVE )
CASE
CASE
CASE
Singular
First
I
my, mine
me
Second
you
your, yours
you
Third
he
his
him
She
her, hers
her
It
its
it
Plural
first
we
our, ours
us
Second
you
your, yours
you
Third
they
their, theirs
them
23. Because of the frequency of errors in personal pronoun usage, note the following:
: ‫ بسبب تكرار األخطاء في استخدام الضمائر الشخصية الحظ التالي‬-23
a. YOU always takes a plural verb.
.‫ تأخذ دائما ً فعل جمع‬YOU -‫أ‬
b. HE, SHE, and IT must not used with DON”T (the contraction of DO NOT); since they are
singular, they must use the form DOESN”T.
.DOESN’T ‫ يجب أن يأخذوا شكل‬. ‫ بما أنهم مفردين‬DON’T ‫ يجب أال تستخدم مع‬HE, SHE, IT -‫ب‬
c. Personal pronouns never use an apostrophe to show possession.
.‫ الضمائر الشخصية ال تستخدم الفاصلة العليا لتُري التملك‬-‫ت‬
d. IT’S is a contraction of IT IS.
3
.IT IS ‫ هي اختصار ل‬IT’S -‫ث‬
e. THERE is a possessive pronoun; THERE is an expletive; THERE IS a contraction of THEY
ARE.
.‫ فهو حشو‬THERE ‫ هو ضمير تملك‬THEIR-‫ج‬
24. Do not use personal pronouns directly after their antecedents.
.‫ ال تستخدم الضمائر الشخصية مباشرة بعد اسمهم السابق‬-24
Poor:
Our friends they went to a museum.
Better: Our friends went to a museum.
25. In compound constructions involving personal pronouns, there are two conditions where the
word order is important:
.ً‫ في التراكيب المركبة التي تضم ضمائر شخصية توجد حالتان حيث أن الترتيب مهم جدا‬-25
a.
where there is a personal pronoun and one or more other nouns (proper or common),
place the personal pronoun last.
.‫ عندما يوجد ضمير شخصي و اسم أو أكثر من أسماء العلم ضع الضمير الشخصي في النهاية‬-‫أ‬
Richard gave the books to Paul and him.
The waiter and she argued over the check.
The flat belongs to Sam and me.
b.
;.;…………………………………. Ryreee
where there are two or more
personal pronoun and one of them is in the first person (singular or plural), the first person
personal pronoun is usually placed last as a mark of courtesy.
He and I are going to the cinema together.
Rita read the paper to him and me.
The dog barks at them and us.
Reflexive Pronouns‫الضمائر االنعكاسية‬
26. Reflexive pronouns are compound forms of personal pronouns which are often used to refer
back to the subject of a sentence.
.‫ الضمائر االنعكاسية هي أشكال مركبة من الضمائر الشخصية و التي تستخدم دائما ً لتشير إلى فاعل الجملة‬-26
The engineer burned himself.
They may also be used ti give emphasis to someone or something mentioned.
She herself repaired the computer.
27. Reflexives used with BY mean alone.
.‫ لتعني االستقاللية‬BY ‫ االنعكاسات تستخدم مع‬-27
He went by himself. (He went alone.)
She repaired the computer by herself. (No one helped her.)
28. The only acceptable reflexive forms are:
: ‫ األشكال االنعكاسية الوحيدة المقبولة هي‬-28
Myself
ourself
Yourself
ourselves
Himself
yourselves
Herself
themselves
Itself
Forms such as theirself, meself, hisself, etc., are unacceptable.
29. Reflexives should never be used as the subject of a sentence or as part of a compound subject.
.‫ يجب أال تستخدم االنعكاسات كفاعل للجملة أو كجزء من الفاعل المركب‬-29
Poor:
Juan and myself are writing a story.
Better: Juan and I are writing a story.
Relative Pronouns‫ضمائر القرابة‬
30. Relative pronouns not only refer to antecedents but also introduce dependent clauses. The
relative pronouns have specific uses:
: ‫ ضمائر القرابة لها استخدامات خاصة‬.‫ ال تشير ضمائر القرابة فقط إلى األسماء السابقة لكنها تبتدأ عبارات مستقلة‬-30
a. WHO (WHOM in the objective case) refers only to people.
.‫ في حالة النصب تشير فقط إلى األشخاص‬WHO (WHOM) -‫أ‬
b. WHOSE (a possessive form of WHO) may refer to people or animals.
.‫) يمكن أن تشير إلى األشخاص و الحيوانات‬WHO ‫ (حالة التملك ل‬WHOSE -‫ب‬
4
c. WHICH refers to specific animals or things.
.‫ تشير إلى حيوانات معينة أو أشياء‬WHICH -‫ت‬
d. THAT refers, in general, to people, animals, or things.
.‫ تشير بشكل عام إلى الناس و الحيوانات و األشياء‬THAT -‫ث‬
31. Compound forms of the relative pronouns may be formed by adding—EVER or –SOEVER
Such an addition adds the meaning of “any” or “no matter” but does not change the usage of the
relative pronoun.
no “ ‫ أو‬any”“ ‫ أضف معنى‬، ‫ كإضافة‬SOEVER ‫ أو‬EVER ‫ أشكال األمر للضمائر الشخصية يمكن أن تشكل بإضافة‬-31
.‫ و لكن ال تغير استخدام ضمائر القرابة‬matter"
Please choose whoever raises his or her hand. (No matter who raises his or her hand,
choose that person.)
Answer whichever way you are directed.(No matter which way you are directed, answer.)
Demonstrative Pronouns‫ضمائر اإلشارة‬
32. Demonstrative pronouns (THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE) refer directly to their nouns.
.‫( تشير مباشرة إلى أسمائهم‬THIS,THAT,THESE,THOSE) ‫ ضمائر القرابة‬-32
This is my book.
That is her hat.
Agreement of Pronouns with Antecedents.
33. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and case.
.‫ يجب أن تتفق الضمائر مع سابقهم في العدد و الجنس و الحالة‬-33
The girl drive by her car.
The boys drove by their cars.
34. Since collective nouns (see Aid 3) can be plural or singular depending on their usage, the
pronouns referring to them must reflect the intended meaning.
‫ بما أن أسماء الجمع يمكن أن تكون مفردة و جمع و ذلك يعتمد على استخدامها فإن الضمائر التي تشير إليهم يجب أن تعكس‬-34
.‫المعنى المقصود‬
The team lost its sixth game in a row.
The team complained about their loose jerseys.
35. Two or more antecedents joined by a coordinating conjunction take a plural pronoun.
.‫ إذا ارتبط اثنان أو ثالثة من األسماء السابقة بحرف جر مناظر فإنهم يأخذون ضمير جمع‬-35
George and Ann rode their bikes.
36. When antecedents are joined by or or nor, there are three possibilities:
:‫ فإنه توجد ثالث احتماالت‬nor ‫ أو‬or ‫ عندما ترتبط األسماء السابقة ب‬-36
a. A singular pronoun is required if each antecedent is singular.
.‫ نحتاج إلى ضمير مفرد إذا كان كل اسم سابق مفرد‬-‫أ‬
Neither Paula nor John mowed her lawn.
b. A singular pronoun is required if the latter antecedent is singular.
.‫ نحتاج إلى ضمير مفرد إذا كان االسم السابق األخير مفرد‬-‫ب‬
c. A plural pronoun is required if the latter antecedent is plural.
.‫ نحتاج إلى ضمير جمع إذا كان االسم السابق األخير جمع‬-‫ت‬
Neither the coach nor the players know their salaries yet.
‫ التوافق بين الضمائر و األفعال‬Agreement of Pronouns with Verbs
37. The following pronouns are always are always singular in construction (requiring singular
verbs):
:)‫ الضمائر التالية هي دائما ً مفردة في التركيب ( تحتاج إلى أفعال مفردة‬-37
Another everybody nobody
Anybody everyone no one
Anyone everything nothing
Anything many a one somebody
Each
neither
someone
Either
one
something
38. The following pronouns are always plural in construction (requiring plural verbs):
:)‫ الضمائر التالية هي دائما ً جمع في التركيب (تحتاج إلى أفعال جمع‬-38
Both
many
few
several
39. The following pronouns may be singular or plural in construction depending on their meaning:
5
.‫ الضمائر التالية يمكن أن تكون مفردة في التركيب و ذلك يعتمد على معانيهم‬-39
All any none
some
Is there any who will teach him?
Are there any of them here today?
40. Relative pronoun are singular or plural depending on their antecedents.
.‫ ضمائر القرابة هي دائما ً في حالة الجمع و ذلك يعتمد األسماء السابقة‬-40
The foreman is reprimanding the workers who always come late.
He is pilot who flies for Eastern Airlines.
Indefinite Pronouns‫الضمائر الغير محددة‬
41. Use the indefinite pronoun ONE to mean anyone or everyone or someone.
.‫ لنعني أي شخص أو كل شخص أو بعض األشخاص‬ONE ‫ نستخدم الضمير الغير محدد‬-41
When one is happy, the world seems bright.
- Use the personal pronoun YOU only when addressing a specific persons. Otherwise use ONE.
. ONE ‫ عندما نخاطب أشخاص معينين و إال فاستخدم‬YOU ‫ نستخدم الضمير الشخصي‬Poor: You should take care of your body.
(In appropriate unless addressing a specific person)
Better: One should take care of one’s body.
42. Use SOME- (SOMEBODY, SOMETHING) in affirmative statements.
.‫ في التعابير اإليجابية‬SOME (SOMEBODY,SOMETHING) ‫ نستخدم‬-42
There is something about her that makes me laugh.
- Use ANY- (ANYONE, ANYBODY, SOMETHING) in negative sentences and in questions.
.‫ في الجمل المنفية و في السؤال‬ANY (ANYONE,ANYBODY,SOMETHING) ‫ نستخدم‬He didn’t take any money with him.
Is there anyone here?
VERBS‫األفعال‬
Three Types of Verbs‫هناك ثالثة أنواع لألفعال‬
43. A verb is a word which expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being.
.‫ الفعل هو كلمة تعبر عن فعل أو حدث أو حالة وجود‬-43
44. Verbs are classified according to their use as transitive, intransitive, or linking.
.‫ تصنف األفعال وفقا ً الستخداماتها إلى أفعال متعدية و أفعال الزمة وأفعال واصلة‬-44
a. Transitive verbs take direct objects to complete their meanings.
‫ األفعال المتعدية تأخذ مفعول به مباشر لتكمل المعنى‬-‫أ‬
The hen laid an egg . ( The egg is the receiver of the action; it is a direct object.)
b. Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects. The action of the verbs is not received directly
by an object.
.‫ المفعول به ال يستقبل مباشرة عمل الفعل‬. ‫ األفعال الالزمة ال تأخذ مفعول به مباشر‬-‫ب‬
My father lay down for a nap.
- A test to see if a verb is transitive or intransitive is to ask the questions Who? Or What? If either
question cannot be answered of the verb, then the verb is intransitive. In the example, notice one
cannot answer the questions, My uncle lay who? Or my uncle lay what?
‫ عندها يكون‬.‫فإذا كان الجواب ال يجيب على سؤال الفعل‬. ‫ االختبار هو إذا ما كان الفعل المتعدي أو الالزم يسأل حول من أو ماذا‬.‫ الحظ أنه في المثال ال نستطيع اإلجابة عن السؤال‬. ‫الفعل الزم‬
- Linking or copulative verbs are not action verbs. They may take predicate nouns or predicate
adjectives (but never adverbs). Linking verbs may be any form of the verb TO BE
)‫ فهم يمكن أن يأخذوا أسماء إسنادية أو صفات إسنادية (ولكن ال تأخذ ظروف‬، ‫ األفعال الرابطة ليست أفعال عمل‬She is a nurse.
- They may be “sensing” verbs, such as FEEL, TASTE, LOOK, etc.
.‫ يمكن أن يكونوا أفعال حسية‬She looks pretty.
He feels good.
- They may also be “appearing” verbs such as SEEM, BECOME, REAMAIN, etc.
.‫ يمكن أن يكونوا أيضا أفعال ظهور‬Her grandfather remains ill.
She seems great.
‫ صيغ األفعال‬The Mood of Verbs
45. The indicative mood is factual. It states a fact or a question either positively or negatively. It is
the most common mood.
6
ً ‫ إنها اكثر الصيغ شيوعا‬.ً‫ حيث تقرر الحقيقة أو السؤال إما سلبا ً أو إيجابا‬، ‫ الصيغة الداللية هي صيغة حقيقية‬-45
46. The imperative mood is used for commands and wishes; it has but one tense, the present.
.‫ صيغة األمر تستخدم من أجل إعطاء األوامر و التمنيات و لها زمن واحد و هو الزمن الحاضر‬-46
Leave here soon!
Please go.
- The subject you, whether singular or plural, is understood but not expressed. The negative is
formed with don’t.
.. don’t ‫ أما النفي فيُشكل ب‬.‫( فيما إذا كان مفرد أو جمع و لكن ال يعبر عنه‬you) ‫ يفهم الفاعل‬Don’t near the fire.
47. The subjunctive mood is used for order. Suppositions, contrary-to fact conditions, future
possibilities, doubts, wishes, and necessities. The most common of these are country-to-fact
conditions. The main idea f the subjunctive mood is expression of a hypothetical or contingent
event.
‫ الصيغة الشرطية تستخدم لألمر و االفتراضات المناقضة للحاالت الحقيقية و اإلمكانيات المستقبلية و الشك و األمنيات و‬-47
‫الفكرة الرئيسية من الصيغة الشرطية هو التعبير عن‬.‫ الصيغ الشرطية األكثر شيوعا ً هي التي تناقض الحاالت الحقيقية‬.‫الضروريات‬
.‫حادثة افتراضية أو محتملة‬
if she were older, we could take her with us. (contrary to fact)
I wish she were old enough to go with us. (wish )
She acts as if she were older.
(doubt )
48. The subjunctive mood of most verbs is different from the indicative mood only in the third person singular. The
S is dropped in the subjunctive.
‫ في‬S ‫ حيث أننا نحذف‬،‫ الصيغة الشرطية لمعظم األفعال مختلفة عن الصيغة الداللية فقط في حالة الشخص الثالث المفرد‬-48
.‫الصيغة الشرطية‬
Indicative: He swims every day.
Subjunctive: It is important that he swims every day.
49. The subjunctive mood of the verb TO BE uses BE in the present tense throughout, and WERE
in the past tense throughout.
‫( في الزمن الماضي في كل‬WERE) ‫( في الزمن الحاضر في كل مكان و‬BE) ‫( تستخدم‬TO BE) ‫ الصيغة الشرطية للفعل‬-49
.‫مكان‬
It is important that they be on their guard.
She wish she was as graceful as her mother.
50. Subjunctive mood sentences that are conditional have two clauses, one independent and one
dependent; the later begins with IF.
-Note the following tense progressions in this type of construction:
‫ المتقدم‬I IF ‫ جمل الصيغة الشرطية التي هي شرطية لها عبارتين األولى مستقلة و األخر تابعة حيث أن األخيرة تبدأ ب‬-50
:‫هي هذا النوع من التركيب‬
a. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the present tense, the main clause
will be in the future tense. This is called a future-unreal condition.
‫( عبارة تابعة في الزمن الحاضر فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تكون في زمن‬IF) ‫ عندما تملك الجملة الشرطية التي تبدأ ب‬-‫أ‬
.‫يدعى ذلك بحالة المستقبل الغير حقيقي‬.‫المستقبل‬
If I hurry, I will be at school on time.
If you follow the directions carefully, this cake will be delicious.
b. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the past tense, the main clause
will use WOULD, SHOULD, COULD, or MIGHT. This is called a present-unreal
condition.
‫عبارة تابعة في الزمن الماضي فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تستخدم‬
IF ‫ عندما تملك الجمل الشرطية التي تبدأ ب‬-‫ب‬
.‫ ذلك يدعى بحالة الحاضر الغير حقيقي‬WOULD,SHOULD,COULD,MIGHT
If I followed the directions carefully, this cake would be delicious.
If he had the time, he’d take a vacation.
I promised William I’d teach him.
If my father were here, he could show you.
c. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the past perfect tense, the main
clause will use WOULD HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, COULD HANE, or MIGHT HAVE. This is
called a past-unreal condition.
7
‫بعبارة تابعة في الزمن الماضي التام فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تستخدم‬
IF ‫ عندما تملك الجملة الشرطية التي تبدأ ب‬-‫ج‬
.‫ ذلك يدعى الماضي الغير حقيقي‬.WOULD HAVE,SHOULD HAVE,COULD HAVE,MIGHT HAVE
If I had followed the directions carefully, this cake would have been delicious.
If he had the time, he’d have taken a vacation.
If my father had been here, he could have shown you.
51. When using the subjunctive mood to express a wish (suggesting a contrary-to-fact condition),
use the past tense to suggest present action, and use the past perfect tense to suggest past action.
‫ عندما نستخدم الحال الشرطية لنعبر عن أمنية ( أو اقتراح مناف للشروط الحقيقية ) فإننا نستخدم الزمن الماضي القتراح فعل‬-51
.‫ و نستخدم الزمن الماضي التام القتراح فعل ماضي‬، ‫حاضر‬
I wish my father were here now to show us. (present)
I wish my father had been here yesterday.
(past)
52. When a dependent clause is introduced by UNTIL, WHEN, BEFORE, AS SOON AS, AS
LOMG AS, or WHILE, the clause takes the present tense to describe the future.
‫ فإن العبارة‬.UNTIL,WHEN,BEFORE,AS SOON AS, AS LONG WHILE ‫ عندما تبدأ العبارة التابعة ب‬-52
.‫تأخذ الزمن الحاضر لتعبر عن المستقبل‬
We won’t go unless they asks us.
They won’t leave as long as we are here.
53. The verbs SHOULD, OUGHT, and MUST express obligation. Only OUGHT may be followed
by an infinitive.
.‫ ربما تتبعه صيغة المصدر‬OUGHT ‫و الفعل‬. ‫ تعبر عن الواجب‬SHOULD,OUGHT,MUST ‫ األفعال‬-53
We ought to visit Grandma Julia this winter.
You must repay that debt.
54. Do not shift mood in a sentence needlessly.
.‫ ال تغير الصيغة في الجملة إذا لم تكن بحاجة إلى ذلك‬-54
Poor: If I were you and was lost, I’d ask directions.
Better: If I were you and were lost, I’d ask directions.
The Voice of Verbs‫صيغ األفعال‬
55. The active voice shows that the subject of the sentence is the actor or doer of the action.
.‫ صيغة المعلوم تُظهر أن فاعل الجملة هو الذي قام بالفعل‬-55
George bought a new car.
56. The passive voice shows that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. This voice is
formed by using some part of the verb TO BE along with the past participle of the main verb. It is
used to draw attention or give emphasis to the receiver of the action, to state generalizations, or to
maintain an impersonal position.
(TO BE)‫هذه الصيغة تتشكل باستعمال بعض أجزاء الفعل‬. ‫ صيغة المجهول تُظهر أن فاعل الجملة هو من وقع عليه الفعل‬-56
.‫ إنه يُستخدم ليشير أو ليؤكد على مستقبل الفعل ليقر التعميم أو ليحافظ على حالة المجهول‬.‫مع الزمن الماضي التام للفعل الرئيسي‬
The new car was bought by George.
The noise was heard in all parts of our house.
We regret to inform you that your application has been.
-The passive voice can also used be to perform the function of a linking verb.
.‫ يمكن لصيغة المجهول أيضا ً أن تنجز عمل الفعل الرابط‬Marten Luther King was considered a considered a spiritual leader.
57. Do not shift voice in the same sentence.
.‫ ال تغير صيغة الفعل في نفس الجملة‬-57
Poor: She gave me pay and I was told where to go.
Better: She paid me and told me where to go.
‫ أزمنة األفعال‬The Tense of Verbs
58. TENSE means time. Time and its relationship to events is established by the use of the correct
tense of the verb in a sentence.
.‫يُعين الوقت و عالقته باألحداث باستعمال الزمن الصحي للفعل في الجملة‬. ‫ الزمن يعني الوقت‬-58
59. The principal parts of a verb are necessary items in order to know how to form the various
tenses. If a verb is regular, the present form is the same as the infinitive (for example, to walk: they
8
walk), the past form is made by adding ING to the present form, and the past participle form is the
same as the past form. There are many irregular verbs which form their principal parts in an
irregular manner.
The following is a selected list of some regular and some irregular verbs and their principal parts.
Whenever you come across a new verb, be sure to memorize its principal parts.
‫ إذا كان الفعل نظامي فإن الشكل الحاضر‬.‫ األقسام الرئيسية لألفعال هي عناصر مهمة لمعرفة كيفية تشكيل األزمنة المتنوعة‬-59
‫ أما شكل الماضي التام فهي نفسها‬،‫ إلى الشكل الحاضر‬IING ‫أما الشكل الماضي فيكون بإضافة‬، ‫هو نفسه في حالة المصدر‬
.‫ يوجد العديد من األفعال الشاذة و التي تشكل أجزائها الرئيسية بطريقة غير نظامية‬.‫كشكل الماضي‬
‫أينما تمر بفعل جديد كن أكيداً أن‬.‫القائمة التالية هي بعض األشكال ال ُمنتقاة لبعض األفعال النظامية و الشاذة و أقسامهم الرئيسية‬
.‫تحفظ أقسامه الرئيسية‬
Present
past
progressive
past participle
Walk
walked
walking
walked
Sing
sang
singing
sung
Do
did
doing
done
Go
went
going
gone
Have
had
having
had
Grow
grew
growing
grown
Speak
spoke
speaking
spoken
Hear
heard
hearing
heard
Cut
cut
cutting
cut
Write
wrote
writing
written
Come
came
coming
come
Begin
began
beginning
begun
CONJUGTION‫التزامن‬
60. TE TENSES ARE ILLUSTRATED IN TE FOLLOWING CONJUGATIONS OF TWO
VERBS, TO SEE AND TO BE
** Conjugation of the Verb To See
PRINCIPAL PARTS
TO BE ‫ و‬TO SEE ‫ األزمنة موضحة في التزامن التالي للفعلين‬-60
‫ األقسام الرئيسية‬TO See ‫تزامن الفعل‬
IFINITIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
see
seeing
saw
seen
Indicative Mood
ACTIVE VOICCE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Present tense
I see
You see
He sees
We see
You see
they see
Present Progressive Tense
I am seeing, etc.
Past Tense
I saw
You saw
He saw
we saw
you saw
they saw
Past Progressive Tense
PASSIVE NOICE
SINGULAR
I am seen
You are seen
she is seen
PLURAL
We are seen
You are seen
they are seen
I am being seen,
I was seen
you were seen
she was seen
we were seen
you were seen
they were seen
I was seeing, etc.
I was being seen, etc.
Future Tense
I shall see
we shall see
I shall be seen
we shall be seen
You will see
you will see
you will be seen
you will be seen
He will see
they will see
they will be seen
they will be seen
Future Progressive Tense
I shall be seeing, etc.
(none)
9
Present Perfect Tense
I have seen
we have seen
I have been seen
we have been seen
You have seen
you have seen
you have been seen
they have been seen
She has seen
we have seen
you have been seen
you have been seen
Present Perfect progressive Tense
I have been seeing, etc.
(none)
Past Perfect Tense
I had seen
we had seen
I had seen
we had been seen
You had seen
you had seen
you had been seen
you had been seen
He had seen
they had seen
she had been seen
they had been seen
Past Perfect progressive Tense
I had been seeing, etc.
(none)
Future Perfect Tense
I shall have seen
we shall have seen
I shall been seen
we shall been seen
You will have seen you will have seen
you will have been seen we will have been seen
He will have seen they will have seen
they will have been seen they will have been seen
Future Perfect progressive Tense
I will have been seeing, etc.
(none)
Subjunctive Mood
ACTIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Present tense
I see
we see
You see
you see
He see
they see
Past Tense
I saw
we saw
You saw
you saw
He saw
they saw
PASSIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
I be seen
you be see
she be seen
we be seen
you be seen
they be seen
I were seen
you were seen
she were seen
we were seen
you were seen
they were seen
Imperative Mood
ACTIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Present Tense
(You) see
(you) see
PASSIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
(you) be seen
(you) be seen
Verbals
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
Infinitives
Present: to see
Perfect: to have seen
to be seen
to have been seen
Gerunds
Present: seeing
Perfect: having seen
being seen
having been seen
Participles
Present: seeing
Past: seen
Perfect: having seen
being seen
(none)
having been seen
** Conjugation of the Verb To Be
Infinitive
Be
PRINCIPAL PART
Present Participle
Past
being
was
past Participle
been
10
Indicative Mood
ACTIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Present Tense
I am
we were
You are
you are
He is
they are
Present Progressive Tense
I am being, etc.
Future Tense
I shall be
we shall be
You will be
you will be
He will be
they will be
Future Progressive Tense
I will be being, etc.
Past Perfect Tense
I had been
we had been
You had been
you had been
He had been
they had been
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Past Tense
I was
we were
you were
you were
she was
they were
Past Progressive Tense
I was being etc.
Present Perfect Tense
I have been
we have been
you have been
you have been
she has been
they have been
Future Perfect Tense
I shall have been
we shall have been
you will have been
you will have been
she will have been
they will have been
Subjunctive Mood
ACTIVE VOICE
Present Tense
Past Tense
I be, etc.
I were, etc.
Future Tense
Present Perfect Tense
I should be, etc.
I have been, etc.
Past Perfect Tense
I had been, etc.
Imperative Mood
ACTIVE VOICE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
Present Tense: (you) be
(you) be
FORMATION AND USE OF VERB TENSES ‫تشكيل و استعمال أزمنة األفعال‬
61. The present tense is used to express:
: ‫ الزمن الحاضر يستعمل للتعبير عن‬-61
1.The present time
‫ الوقت الحاضر‬-1
I hear you.
We need food.
a. A general truth. .‫حقيقة عامة‬
The earth revolves around the sun.
b. The historical present.
‫زمن حاضر تاريخي‬
Kennedy ranks as a great president.
c. The future.‫المستقبل‬
We leave for Boston on Friday.
62. The present continuous tense is used to express an action that is going on at the present
moment, or to express a future action.
.‫ الزمن الحاضر المستمر يستعمل للتعبير عن القيام بالفعل في اللحظة أو للتعبير عن فعل مستقبلي‬-62
You are reading.
I am leaving for Rome tomorrow.
63.
The past tense is used to express an action that ended sometime in the past.
.‫ الزمن الماضي يستخدم للتعبير عن فعل انتهى في وقت ما في الماضي‬-63
I got up this and ate breakfast.
11
64. The past continuous tense express a past action which was going on When another action took
place. It used in conjunction with the past tense.
.‫الزمن الماضي المستمر يعبر عن فعل ماضي كان قائما ً عندما حدوث فعل آخر حيث أنه يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن الماضي‬-64
I was typing when you called last night.
65.
The future tense express an action which has not yet happened.
.‫ الزمن المستقبل يعبر عن فعل لم يحدث بعد‬-65
a. One way to express the future is to WILL plus the simple Form of the verb. WILL is often
contracted with a personal Pronoun.
ً ‫ دائما‬WILL ‫ باإلضافة للشكل البسيط للفعل حيث أننا نختصر‬WILL ‫ أول طريقة الوحيدة للتعبير عن المستقبل هي استخدام‬-‫أ‬
.‫مع الضمير الشخصي‬
She’ll (she will) leave for Miami on Thursday.
b. Another way to express the future is to use GOING TO plus the Simple from of the verb.
.‫ باإلضافة للشكل البسيط للفعل‬GOING TO ‫ الطريق األخر للتعبير عن المستقبل هي استخدام‬-‫ب‬
HE’s going to leave for Houston on Monday.
c. The past tense of TO BE GOING TO (WAS GOING TO, WERE GOING TO) is used to express
an action which was planned or Intended but which did not happen.
‫ يستخدم للتعبير عن فعل‬TO BE GOING TO(WAS GOING TO,WERE GOING TO) ‫ الزمن الماضي للفعل‬-‫ت‬
.‫ُخطط له أو قُصد و لكنه لم يحصل‬
I was going to call you, but I forget.
66. The future continuous tense expresses an action that will be going on when another action takes
place.
.‫ زمن المستقبل المستمر يعبر عن فعل سوف يحدث عند حدوث فعل آخر‬-66
At this time next year, he’ll be studying at Cornell University.
67. The present perfect tense (HAVE or HAS plus the past participle)is used to express:
:‫( باإلضافة لصيغة الماضي التام يستخدم للتعبير عن‬HAVE,HAS) ‫ الزمن الحاضر التام‬-67
a. An action that happened at some indefinite time in the past.
.‫فعل حدث في وقت غير محدد في الماضي‬Susan has learned many new words.
b. An action which started in the past and is continuing into the Present.
.‫فعل حدث في الماضي و استمر في الوقت الحاضر‬My father has worked hard all her life.
c. An action that was repeated several times prior to the present.
.‫فعل ُكرر عدة مرات قبل الوقت الحاضر‬Richard has seen that movie five times.
d. Exact times are not mentioned in this tense; if a specific time is Mentioned for an action, the
past tense is used.
.‫ال نذكر أوقات محددة في هذا الزمن فإن ُحدد وقت معين لهذا الفعل نستعمل الزمن الماضي‬Cathy had read this book.
Cathy read this book yesterday
68. The present perfect continuous tense express an action that began in the past and has
continued up to the present. It can often be interchanged with the present perfect tense.
.‫الزمن الحاضر التام المستمر يعبر عن فعل بدأ في الماضي و انتهى في الحاضر و نستطيع دائما ً أن نبدله بالزمن الحاضر التام‬-68
Mike has been doing very little work recently.
69. The past perfect tense expresses an action completed prior to some past event. It is used in
conjunction with the past tense.
.‫ الزمن الماضي التام يعبر عن فعل تم قبل فعل ما حدث في الماضي حيث يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن الماضي‬-69
I had already eaten when you called last night.
70. The future perfect tense expresses a future action to be completed before some future time. It is
used in conjunction with the future tense.
‫ زمن المستقبل التام يعبر عن فعل مستقبلي سوف يكمل قبل وقت معين في المستقبل حيث أنه يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن‬-70
.‫المستقبلي‬
12
I shall have eaten by the time you will arrive.
Do not shift tense. Consistency is important in sentence structure.
.‫ ال تغير الزمن ألن االتساق هام في تركيب الجملة‬-71
Poor: when she arrives home at night I’ll be asleep.
Better: When she arrives home at night I am asleep.
72. Take care not to confuse the perfect tense with the past tense.
.‫ كن حذرا ً أال تربك الزمن التام بالزمن الماضي‬-72
Poor: Did Carmen return your pen yet?
Better: Has Carmen returned your pen yet?
(The action of returning the pen may have taken place at any time since it was borrowed. An
indefinite past action requires the present perfect tense.)
71.
Auxiliary Verbs‫األفعال المساعدة‬
73. There are many auxiliary or helping verbs which are used with main verbs to show tense, mood,
and voice. Some of the most common auxiliary verbs are:
‫هذه بعض األفعال‬.‫يوجد العديد من األفعال المساعدة و التي تستخدم مع األفعال الرئيسية لتُري الزمن و الحالة و الصيغة‬-73
: ‫المساعدة الشائعة‬
be
have
shall
will
may might
can
must
ought should
would
could
do
need
let
dare
- Some of these auxiliary verbs can be used together to help the Main verb.
.‫ بعض من هذه األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن تستخدم مع بعضها لتساعد الفعل الرئيسي‬I should have called you last week.
He must be going to California immediately.
74. Never use an auxiliary verb with the past tense form of the main verb.
.‫ ال تستخدم الفعل المساعد مع الزمن الماضي للفعل الرئيسي‬-74
Poor: I had began the exercise.
Better: I had begun the exercise.
75. The past participle form of the verb is always used with an auxiliary verb. It may never be used
alone as a verb.
.‫يستخدم شكل الماضي التام للفعل دائما ً فعل مساعد حيث أنه ال يستخدم لوحده كفعل‬-75
Poor: I drunk the water.
Better: I had drunk the water.
76. From negatives by placing NOT after the auxiliary verb.
.‫ بعد الفعل الرئيسي‬NOT ‫لتشكيل النفي بوضع‬-76
Peter has not eaten dinner.
You may not enter now.
One must not drive over fifty-five mikes hour.
He should not smoke.
AUXILIARY VERBS FOR USE WITH THE SUBJUNCTIIýVE MOOD
‫استخدام األفعال المساعدة مع الصيغة الشرطية‬
77. Use May, CAN,SHALL, or WILL if the governing verb is in the present tense.
.‫ إذا كان الفعل المسيطر في الزمن الحاضر‬MAY,SHALL,WILL ‫ استخدم‬-77
My boss tells me that I may get a 7 percent raise in pay.
Suzanne thinks that she will pass the exam.
Use MIGHT, COULD, SHOULD, or WOULD if the governing verb is in The past tense.
.‫ إذا كان الفعل المسيطر في الزمن الماضي‬MIGHT,SHOULD,WOULD ‫ استخدم‬My boss told me that I might get a 7 percent raise in pay.
Emily thought that she would pass the exam.
78. Use SHOULD to express general obligation, expectation, or condition.
We should have known better.
.‫ للتعبير عن واجب عام أو توقع أو حالة يجب أن نعرفها بشكل أفضل‬SHOULD ‫ استخدم‬-78
If you should see Jay, tell him to meet us.
The train should have been here by now.
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79. Use WOULD to express habitual or customary action or possibility.
.‫ للتعبير عن فعل اعتيادي أو إمكانية‬WOULD ‫ استخدم‬-79
Every year on October 31,he would start to visit his parents.
If I didn’t have to work tonight I would go with you.
80. Use MUST, OUGHT TO, SHOULD or HAVE TO to express necessity or strong obligation.
.‫ للتعبير عن ضرورة أو واجب قوي‬MIGHT,OUGHT TO, SHOULD, HAVE TO ‫ استخدم‬-80
We must finish this by tomorrow.
You ought to slow down on this road.
Suzann should lose some weight.
81. The past tense forms of SHOULD and OUGHT TO are formed by using the auxiliary verb, plus
HAVE, plus the past participle of the main verb.
‫ و الزمن‬HAVE ‫ تُشكل باستخدام أفعال مساعدة باإلضافة ل‬SHOULD, OUGHT TO ‫أشكال الزمن الماضي لألفعال‬-81
.‫الماضي التام للفعل الرئيسي‬
You should have listened more carefully.
Lynn ought to have work by now.
82. Of the four auxiliary verbs listed in Aid 80 which show necessity, etc., only HAVE TO has a
past, future, and present perfect tense form.
‫ فقط يمكن أن يكون‬HAVE TO ‫ الفعل‬..‫ و التي تُري الضرورة الخ‬80 ‫بالنسبة لألفعال المساعدة الموجودة في المساعدات‬-82
.‫في الزمن الماضي و المستقبل و الزمن الحاضر التام‬
We had to slow down on this road last night.
You will have to slow down on this road tonight.
She has had to slow down on road many times.
83. CAN and MAY should not be used interchangeably. Use MAY to show permission or to
indicate possible future action. Use CAN to show ability.
‫ للتعبير عن السماح بشيء ما أو لإلشارة عن فعل مستقبلي‬MAY ‫ استعمل‬. ‫ ال يمكن أن تتبادل فيما بينها‬CAN,MAY -83
.‫ للتعبير عن المقدرة‬CAN ‫استخدم‬. ‫ممكن‬
He may enter the testing room now.
You may go to the zoo tomorrow.
You can do it; I know you can.
SOME TWO-WORD AUXILIARY VERBS ‫بعض األفعال المساعدة التي تتكون من كلمتين‬
84. SUPPOSED TO, expressing obligation or expectation, has a present and a past tense form.
.‫ تعبر عن الفرض أو التوقعات و تأخذ شكل الزمن الحاضر و الماضي‬SUPPOSED TO-84
The boys are supposed to be here now.
The boys were supposed to be here an hour ago.
85. USED TO describes an action that happened over a period of time in the past, but no longer
happens.
.‫ تصف فعل حدث في فترة من الوقت في الماضي و لكنها لم تعد تحدث‬USED TO-85
My husband and I used to smoke, but we quit.
Lucy used to serve as their official interpreter.
86. WOULD RATHER is followed by the simple form of the verb. The phrase means TO PREFER
and is usually contracted ‘D RATHER.
‫ تُتبع بالشكل البسيط للفعل حيث أن هذه العبارة تعني التفضيل و االختصار عادة يكون كالتالي‬WOULD RATHER-86
.'D RATHER
I’d rather go to a play than see a movie.
Would you rather live in NEW YOURK or in Chicago?
87. HAD BETTER, indicating advisability of an action, is followed by the simple form of the
main verb.
.‫ استحسان الفعل و يتبعها دائما ً الشكل البسيط للفعل الرئيسي‬HAD BETTER-87
He had better not see her anymore.
You’d better notify the hospital of her illness.
AUXILIARY VERBS IN TAG ENDINGS ‫نهايات األفعال المساعدة‬
88. Tag endings ask questions or invite confirmation of some already- know fact.
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Always use a negative tag ending after an affirmative statement.
Always use a positive tag ending after a negative statement.
‫ و استخدم‬،‫استخدم دائما ً النهاية التي تدل على النفي بعد التعبير اإليجابي‬.‫النهايات تسأل أو تدعو للتأكيد على حقيقة معروفة للتو‬-88
.‫دائما ً النهاية التي تدل على اإليجاب بعد التعبير المنفي‬
They haven’t paid you yet, have they?
She can drive a car, can’t she?
They gave you what you wanted, didn’t they?
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON AUXILIARY VERBS ‫مالحظات متنوعة حول األفعال المساعدة‬
89. Some auxiliary verbs may also be used as main verbs.
.‫بعض األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن تستخدم أيضا ً كأفعال رئيسية‬-89
You need not go. (auxiliary)
We all need love. ( main)
The team has a new coach.
(main)
He has lived here all his life.
(auxiliary)
Pam always does her homework. (main)
She doesn’t want our help.
(auxiliary)
90- Auxiliary verbs are useful in helping to avoid repetition, such as in these situation.
‫ األفعال المساعدة تفيد في المساعدة على تجنب التكرار كما في هذه الحالة‬-90
a. In sentences that express opposite situation, repetition may be avoided by using BUT and an
auxiliary verb alone.
.‫و الفعل المساعد فقط‬
BUT ‫في الجمل التي تعبر عن حالة مناقضة فإننا يمكن أن نتجنب التكرار باستعمال‬-‫أ‬
Poor: Peter has eaten dinner, but Catherine hasn’t eaten dinner.
Better: Emma doesn’t have holiday tomorrow, but I do.
Maher can’t speak Spanish, but samara can.
The police think that Evan stole the car, but he says he didn’t.
b. Repetition of the auxiliary verbs may be omitted if several auxiliary verbs in a sentence are
in the same form and the actions of their main verbs are related.
‫ تكرار األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن يحذف إذا كانت األفعال المتبقية في الجملة في نفس الشكل و أعمال األفعال الرئيسية‬-‫ب‬
.‫مسرودة‬
Poor: Sharon will read the story and will finish it.
Better: Sharon will read the story and finish it.
c. Repletion may be avoided by using TOO or SO with an auxiliary verb.
.‫ مع الفعل المساعد‬SO‫ أو‬TOO ‫يمكن تجنب التكرار باستخدام‬-‫ت‬
Poor:I wen to school in Ann Arbor and Lucy went to school in Ann Arbor.
Better: I want to school in Ann and so did Lucy.
Poor: Barbara practices yoga and her husband practices yoga.
Better: Barbara practices yoga and her husband does too.
CAUSATIVE AUXILARIES‫األفعال المساعدة السببية‬
91. Causative structures are used to show that someone caused the performance of some action. The
past participle form of the verb is used along with HAVE or GET. When the mood is subjunctive,
use the present tense.
GET‫و‬HAVE ‫ الماضي التام للفعل يستخدم مع‬. ‫ التراكيب السببية تستخدم لتُري أن شخص ما سبب إنجاز بعض األعمال‬-91
.‫عندما تكون الصيغة شرطية نستخدم الزمن الحاضر‬.
Did you have your oil checked at the gas station?
Pam has her hair done once a week.
Sonia got her shoes resoled last week.
If the gardener comes today, have him plant the rosebush.
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VERBALS ‫األسماء الفعلية‬
92. Verbals are forms of verbs, but not verbs themselves. Gerunds, infinitives, and participles are
verbals.
‫ و المصادر و أسماء‬ING‫ األسماء الفعلية هي أشكال لألفعال و لكنها ليست األفعال نفسها و هي المصادر التي تنتهي ب‬-92
.‫المفعول‬
93. Avoid splitting infinitives.
‫ التي تدل عن المصدر عن فعلها‬TO ‫تجنب فصل‬-93
Poor: They asked us to quickly prepare ourselves.
Better: They asked us to prepare ourselves quickly.
- It is acceptable to omit TO in an infinitive when the infinitive is preceded by certain verbs.
.‫ من المصدر عندما يسبقه أفعال معينة‬TO ‫من المقبول حذف‬
I didn’t want to do it; they made me do it.
94. Take care not to let a participle dangle, that is, hang loosely in a sentence without a clearly
defined noun to modify.
. ‫كن حذر أال تدع اسم المفعول متبوع يعلق في الجملة برخاوة بدون أن يحدد اسم لتعديله بشكل واض‬-94
Poor: Jumping to the ground, my keys fell out.
Better: Jumping to the ground, I lost my keys.
(It was I who jumped to the ground, not the keys. The participle must modify I.)
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS‫الصفات و الظروف‬
95. Many adjectives become adverbs by adding LY.
.LY ‫معظم الصفات تصب ظروف بإضافة‬-95
Soft softly
beautiful
beautifully
96. Some words may be used as adjectives or adverbs with no change in form.
.‫يمكن لبعض الكلمات أن تستعمل كصفات أو كظروف بدون أي تغيير في الشكل‬-96
Fast hard
low late
97. Do not confuse adjective phrases with adverbial phrases.
.‫ال تربك أشباه الجمل التي تعبر عن الصفات بأشباه الجمل التي تعبر عن الظروف‬-97
She was absent because she was ill.
Her absence was due to her illness.
The first sentence above is an adverbial phrase. The second sentence above is an adjective phrase.
.‫الجملة األولى في األعلى هي شبه جملة ظرفية أما الجملة الثانية فهي شبه جملة تعبر عن الصفة‬
98. FARTHER refers to a greater distance in space.
FARTHER refers to a greater degree, extent, or quantity.
.‫ تشير إلى مسافة كبيرة و إلى درجة كبيرة أو امتداد أو كمية‬FARTHER-98
Damascus is farther than I thought.
If you need further information, please ask.
99. Do not use two negative adverbs or adjective in the same construction.
.‫ ال تستخدم ظرفين أو صفتين منفيتين في نفس التركيب‬-99
Poor:
He doesn’t have no money.
Better:
He has no money.
Better:
He doesn’t have any money.
-It is acceptable, however, to use a construction such as NOT UNFAMILIAR to mean familiar.
.‫ لتعني أن الشيء مألوف‬NOT UNFAMILIAR‫إنه من المقبول أن تستخدم تركيب ك‬100. WHEN and WHERE are usually adverbs, and as such may not introduce noun clauses.
.‫ هم عادة ظروف لهذا فهم ال يبتدئون العبارة االسمية‬WHERE ‫ و‬WHEN -100
Poor:
Oxford is the university where we are going.
Better: Oxford is the university that we are attending.
PLACING ADVERBS‫توضع الظروف‬
101. Place adverbs as near as possible to the verb, adjective, other adverb, etc., which they modify
in order to avoid confusion. Take particular care with ALMOST, EVER, EVEN, JUST, HARDLY,
NOT and ONLY.
16
‫ضع الظروف قريبة من الفعل و الصفة و الظروف األخر بقدر اإلمكان و التي يحددوها لتجنب اإلرباك كن حذراً بشكل‬-101
ALMOST,EVER,EVEN,JUST,HARDLY,NOT,ONLY ‫خاص مع‬
Only she said loved him.
She only said she loved him.
She said only she loved him.
She said she only loved him.
She said she loved only him.
102. Place adverbs of time at the beginning of a sentence or at the end.
.‫ظروف الزمان تكون في بداية الجملة أو في نهايتها‬-102
Yesterday we saw our first baseball game.
I’m flying to Britain tomorrow.
103. Please adverbs of frequency before the main verb, unless it is the verb TO BE.
.‫ظروف التكرار تكون قبل الفعل الرئيسي و لكن قبل فعل الكون‬-103
Ellen has never sailed a boat.
July seldom complains.
Nina is often late for class.
104. Adverbs should not separate verbs from their direct objects.
.‫يجب أال تفرق الظروف األفعال من المفعول به المباشر الذي يتبعهم‬-104
Poor:
I will meet today the boss.
Better:
I will meet the boss today.
PLACING ADJECTIVES‫توضع الصفات‬
105. Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify.
.‫الصفات عادة تسبق األسماء التي تصفها‬-105
A bright sky
a pretty dress
- The may, however, follow their nouns for special purposes.
.‫يمكن لهم أن يسبقوا أسماءهم ألهداف معينة‬All thing bright and beautiful
reasons unknown
106. When several adjectives modify one noun, adjectives of color are usually placed directly
before the noun.
.ً‫ عندما تصف عدة صفات اسم واحد فإن صفات اللون عادة توضع قبل االسم تماما‬-106
the old gray mare
the Smiths’ expensive, new, red couch
THE COMPARATIVE DEGRE‫صيغة المقارنة‬
107. The comparative degree of most short adverbs and adjectives is formed by adding ER.
.
ER ‫صيغة المقارنة لمعظم الظروف و الصفات القصيرة تتشكل بإضافة‬-107
Smart smarter
easy easier
Dark darker
late later
108.The comparative degree of most adverbs and adjectives of more than one or two syllables is
formed by using MORE.
‫ صيغة المقارنة لمعظم الظروف و الصفات التي تكون مكونة من أكثر من مقطع أو اثنين من المقاطع اللفظية تتشكل‬-108
MORE ‫باستخدام‬
Difficult
more difficult
often
more often
Valuable
more valuable
Frequently
more frequently
109-Never use both the ER from and the MORE from with the same word.
. ‫ في نفس الكلمة‬MORE ‫ و صيغة الـ‬ER ‫ ال تستخدم أبدا ً صيغة الـ‬-109
Poor: Smith was more quieter than his sister.
Better: Smith was quieter than his sister.
110. The comparative degree of all adverbs and adjectives is followed by THAN.
.THAN‫ صيغة المقارنة للظروف و الصفات تتبع ب‬-110
They are wiser than their parents.
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That restaurant is more expensive than this one.
She arrived more quickly than I expected.
Guy works harder than his brother.
THE SUPERLATVE DEGREE‫صيغة التفضيل‬
111. The superlative degree of adverbs and adjectives is used to express comparison among three or
more persons, things, etc.
The superlative degree of most short adverbs and adjectives is formed by adding EST.
.‫ صيغة التفضيل للظروف و الصفات تستخدم للتعبير عن مقارنة بين ثالثة أو أكثر من األسماء أو األشياء‬-111
EST ‫صيغة التفضيل لمعظم الظروف و الصفات القصيرة تتشكل بإضافة‬
Smart
smartest
easy
easiest
Dark
darkest
late
latest
112. The superlative degree of most adverbs and adjectives of more than one or two syllables is
formed by using MOST.
.
MOST‫ صيغة التفضيل لمعظم الظروف و الصفات و التي تتكون من أكثر من مقطع أو اثنين تتشكل باستخدام‬-112
Difficult most difficult
Valuable most valuable
Frequentlymost frequently
113. Never use both the EST and the MOST form with the same word.
.‫ في نفس الكلمة‬EST,MOST ‫ ال تستخدم كل من‬-113
Poor:
That was the most unkindest remark of all.
Better: That was the unkindest remark of all.
114. The superlative degree of all adverbs and adjectives is preceded by THE.
. THE ‫ يسبق صيغة التفضيل لكل الظروف و الصفات‬-114
Leland is the most clever man in the company.
He is the cleverest.
Jane sings the most softly of all the members of the choir.
MISCELLANEOUS RULES OF COMPARISON‫أحكام متنوعة للمقارنة‬
115. When comparing members of a group, don’t compare something to itself. Use ELSE or
OTHER in the comparative degree.
‫ في درجة المقارنة‬OTHER ‫أو‬
ELSE ‫ عندما تقارن أعضاء مجموعة ال تقارن شيء ما بنفسه و استخدم‬-115
Jim’s car was faster than any other in the race.
Anne is heavier than anyone else in the class.
-Use ALL in the superlative degree.
.‫ في صيغة التفضيل‬ALL ‫ استخدم‬His is the fastest of all the cars.
She is the heaviest of all the class.
116- Do not compare adverbs or adjectives which, by their definition, are absolute.
Here are some examples:
.‫ ال تقارن الظروف و الصفات و التي يكونون بتعريفهم مطلقون و هذه بعض األمثلة‬-116
absolute
final
ultimate
sole
first
unanimous
total
last
unique
eternal
primary
only
117. Remember these two spelling hints when forming comparatives and Superlatives:
.‫ تذكر هاتين المساعدتين للتهجئة عندما نشكل صيغة المقارنة والتفضيل‬-117
118. When a short word ends in a consonant which is preceded by a vowel. The last consonant is
doubled before adding ER or EST.
ST ‫ أو‬ER ‫ عندما تنتهي كلمة قصيرة بحرف ساكن مسبوق بحرف صوتي فإن الحرف الساكن األخير يضاعف قبل إضافة‬-118
Big
bigger
biggest
Hot
hotter
hottest
Sad
sadder
saddest
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When a word ends in a Y which is preceded by a consonant, change the Y to I before adding ER or
EST.
EST ‫ أو‬ER ‫قبل إضافة‬I ‫ إلى‬Y‫و التي تكون مسبوقة بحرف ساكن تتغير‬Y ‫عندما تنتهي كلمة ب‬
Easy
easier
easiest
Dusty
dustier
dustiest
Special forms for five adjectives:: ‫أشكال خاصة لخمسة صفات‬
Positive
Comparative
Superlative
Good
better
best
Bad
worse
worst
Little
littler , less
littlest, least
Many, much
more
most
Far
farther, further
farthest, furthest
Special forms for five adverbs:
Well
better
best
Badly
worse
worst
Little
less
least
Much
more
most
Far
farther, further
farthest, furthest
119.THERE, HERE and IT when used as expletives, help to provide emphasis or smoothness in
sentences. An expletive is never the subject of a sentence. Look for the subject to find out which
verb to use.
.‫ الكالم الحشو هو ليس فاعل الجملة‬. ‫ كحشو تساعد في التأكيد و التمهيد في الجملة‬THERE,HERE,IT ‫ عندما تستخدم‬-119
.‫ابحث عن الفاعل لتجد أي فعل ستستخدم‬
Singular:
There is a fly in the room.
(FLY is the subject.)
It is I at your door.
(I is the subject.)
Plural:
There are forty students in my class.
(STUDENTS is the subject)
Here come my friends, the Mayfields.
(FRINDS is the subject)
APPOSITIVES‫البدل‬
120.Wen pronouns are in apposition, they must agree with the nouns or pronouns they name in
number, gender, and case.
.‫ عندما تكون الضمائر بدل عن االسم يجب أن تطابق األسماء أو الضمائر التي تسميها في العدد و الجنس و الحالة‬-120
Poor: The director has asked for two volunteers, you and I
Better:
The director has asked for two volunteers, you and me
(The object of the verb ASKED is VOLUNTEERS. The words in apposition to VOLUNTEERS
must therefore also be in the objective case.)
Poor: Us girls are going out shopping now.
Better:
WE girls are going out shopping now.
-(GIRLS Is the subject of the sentence, so the pronoun in apposition must also be in the subjective
case.)
PREPOSITIONS ‫أحرف الجر‬
121.-Since prepositions require objects, be sure that all pronouns that are object of prepositions are
in the objective case.
.‫ بما أن أحرف الجر تحتاج إلى مفعول به كن أكيدا ً أن كل الضمائر التي هي مفعول به ألحرف الجر تكون في حالة المفعولية‬-121
Poor:
Henry was asked to choose between Jack and I.
Better:
Henry was asked to choose between Jack and me.
122.-Take care not to use or repeat prepositions needlessly.
.‫ كن حذرا َ أن ال تستخدم أو تكرر أحرف الجر دون الحاجة لذلك‬-122
Poor: Of what are you afraid of?
Better: Of what are you afraid?
Better: what are you afraid of?
19
Poor: She wandered off of the track.
Better: She wandered off the track.
Preposition Usage‫استخدام أحرف الجر‬
123-DIFFER FROM means to be dissimilar.DIFFER WITH mean to disagree.
.‫ يعني عدم التوافق‬DIFFER WITH .‫ يعني التباين‬DIFFER FROM-123
Your car differs from mine.
Fred differs with me on this matter.
124. -DIFFERENT FROM is the correct phrase, meaning to be unlike.
Never use DIFFERENT THAN.
DIFFERENT ‫ ال تستخدم‬.‫ هي شبه جملة صحيحة و التي تعني أن تكون غير مشابه‬DIFFEREN FROM -124
.THAN
Poor:
Life here is no different than life anywhere else.
Better:
Life here is no different from life anywhere else.
125.-AMONG is used to compare three or more items.
.‫ لمقارنة ثالثة أو أكثر من المواد‬AMONG ‫تستخدم‬-125
Let’s keep the news secret among just the four of us.
BETWEEN is used to compare two items.
.‫ للمقارنة بين مادتين‬BETWEEN ‫ تستخدم‬Nothing has ever come between her husband and her.
126-DESPITE and IN SPITE of may be used interchangeably when followed by a noun.
.‫ أن تستخدم بشكل متبادل عندما يتبعها اسم‬IN ‫ و‬DESPITE ‫يمكن لـ‬-126
Despite his age, he worked as hard as his grandson.
In spite of the fact that we lost, we were in good spirits.
127.-FOR shows the length of time of an action.
.‫ تعني اإلطالة في وقت الفعل‬FOR-127
Betsy as worked here for four months.
SINCE shows the time the action began.
.‫ تعني أن وقت الفعل قد بدأ‬SINCE Betsy as worked here since March.
128.Try to avoid the use of up with a verb. OPEN up is not as good as OPEN; DIVIDING
something is better than DDIVIDING up something; it would be better to DRINK a liquid rather
than to DRINK UP a liquid. When UP is used as part of a separable two-word verb, keep the two
parts as close as possible.
DIVIDING ‫ أفضل من‬DIVIDING .OPEN ‫ ليست جيدة مثل‬OPEN UP ‫ مع الفعل‬UP ‫ حاول أن تتجنب استخدام‬-128
‫ يجب استخدام القسمين‬، ‫ كجزء من فعل مفصول إلى كلمتين‬UP ‫ عندما تستخدم‬K UPDRINH ‫ هي افضل من‬DRINK .UP
.‫بشكل متقارب بقدر اإلمكان‬
Did you tear up her letter?
Did you tear it up?
129-There are many special uses of certain prepositions. They must be learned. Note each idiomatic
use of a preposition when you hear or read it. The following list presents some of the most common
special uses:
‫ الحظ االستخدام االصطالحي لحرف الجر عندما تسمعه أو‬. ‫ هناك استخدامات خاصة ألحرف جر معينة يجب أن تعلمها‬-129
.‫ القائمة التالية تقدم بعض أكثر االستخدامات الخاصة الشائعة‬. ‫تقرأه‬
a.
b.
c.
d.
A person travels on a plane, train, or bus , but in a car or taxi.
One gets angry at people, but with things.
When speaking about an address:
One lives at a specific address:
One lives at a specific street:
One lives at specificity:
When speaking about someone’s birth:
A person is born at a specific time: at 3:39 P.M
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A person is born at a specific date: on August 7, 1966
A person is born at a specific day: on Sunday
A person is born at a specific city: in Lima, Peru
The person in the example above is ever after said to be from Lima.
CONJUNCTIONS ‫أحرف العطف‬
130-Subordinate conjunctions join dependent clauses to main or independent clauses. When the
dependent clause comes first in a sentence, it is usually followed by a comma. These are the most
common subordinate conjunctions:
‫ عندما تأتي العبارة التابعة أوالً في الجملة فإنها عادة تُتبع‬.‫ أحرف العطف الثانوية تصل بين عبارات تابعة بعبارات مستقلة‬-130
.‫ هذه معظم أحرف العطف الشائعة‬. ‫بفاصلة‬
After
before
since until
Although even though
that when
As
if
that
where
As if
in order that
though whether
Because
lest
unless while
131.-Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect items of equal rank.
These are the most common coordinate conjunctions:
.ً‫ و هذه أكثر هذه األحرف شيوعا‬. ‫أحرف العطف النظيرة تستخدم لتربط بين مفردات متساوية في الدرجة‬-131
And
but
or
Yet
for
nor
132-Correlative conjunctions are used to connect items of the same kind; they are used in pairs. Do
not confuse or mix up these pairs; they must be used as listed.
‫ال تربك أو تخلط‬. ‫تستخدم أحرف العطف المترابطة لتربط المفردات التي تكون من نفس النوع و هم يُستعملون بشكل ثنائي‬-132
.‫هذه الثنائيات فهم يجب أن يُستعملوا كالتالي‬
Either . . . or
nether . . . nor
Both . . . and
not only . . . but also
As . . . as
so . . . as
Gibson is tall as his uncle.
The meal was not only good, but also cheap.
EITHER . . . OR and NEITHER . . . NOR may only be used to correlate two elements. If more than
two elements are involved, a correlative conjunction is inappropriate.
‫فإذا كان يوجد أكثر من عنصرين‬. ‫ يمكن أن تستخدم فقط لتربط عنصران اثنان‬EITHER…OR, NEITHER…NOR
.‫مرتبطين فإن حرف العطف الرابط يكون غير مالئم‬
Poor: Neither Yale, Rosy, nor Magi will accompany you.
Better: You will not be accompanied by Yale, by Rosy, or by Magi.
133-Take car in using coordinate or correlative conjunctions when the items joined are of equal
rank or similar form.
.‫ كن حذرا ً في استخدام أحرف العطف النظيرة و الرابطة عندما تكون المفردات المرتبطة من نفس المرتبة أو من نفس الشكل‬-133
Poor:
She both gave me money and food.
Better:
Se gave me both money and food.
(The first sentence is poor because BOTH . . . AND joins a verb and a noun.)
134.-Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs which are used as conjunctions for the purpose of joining two
or more main or independent clauses. They are usually preceded by a semicolon. These are some of
the most common conjunctive adverbs:
‫وهذه‬.‫ الظروف الرابطة هي الظروف التي تستخدم كروابط م أجل الربط بين اثنتين أو أكثر من العبارات الرئيسية المستقلة‬-134
:ً‫و هذه بعض الظروف الرابطة األكثر شيوعا‬.‫الظروف تكون متبوعة دائما ً بفاصلة منقوطة‬
Accordingly
for example
or else
therefore
Also
owever1
otherwise thus
Besides
nevertheless
still
yet
135. The following words are not conjunctions. They may not be used to introduce a clause.
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.‫ الكلمات التالية هي ليست أحرف عطف و لكنها تستخدم للبدء بالعبارة‬-135
Except (a preposition or a verb)
Without (a preposition)
Like
(a preposition or a verb)
Poor: John insisted that his daughter write like he does.
Better: John insisted that his daughter write as he does.
ARTICLES‫أدوات التعريف أو التنكير‬
136.A and AN are the indefinite articles. They are used only with singular nouns that
have not been specifically identified.
.‫ هما أداتي تنكير وهما تستخدمان فقط مع األسماء المفردة و التي ال تكون معرفة بشكل خاص‬A,AN-136
A is used before words beginning with consonant sounds.
A bird
a historical event a yellow tie
137. THE is the definite article referring to a particular noun. It is used with both singular and
plural nouns.
.‫ هي أداة تعريف تشير إلى اسم معين و تستخدم مع كال األسماء المفردة و الجمع‬THE-137
The bird
the yellow ties
the items
THE precedes the names of the rivers, of seas, Montana ranges, and of some countries.
.‫ أسماء األنهار و البحار و النطاق و بعض البلدان‬THE ‫تسبق‬
The Yale River
the Alps
The Atlantic Ocean
the United States
THE precedes the names persons, countries, streets, cities, etc.,When they are used as adjectives.
.‫الخ عندما تستخدم هذه الكلمات كصفات‬.. ‫ أسماء األشخاص و البلدان و الشوارع و المدن‬THE ‫تسبق‬
The Korean coastline
the Main Street merchants
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT‫التوافق بين الفاعل و الفعل‬
139. The subject of a sentence must agree with its predicate in number.
.‫يجب أن يتطابق الفاعل في الجملة مع الخبر في العدد‬-139
The carton of eggs is on the table.
(CARTON is the singular subject.)
The data have arrived just in time.
(DATA is the plural subject.)
140. If a parenthetical pharos-intervening words-appears between the subject and the
predicate, ignore the phrase for purposes of making the verb agree.
‫العبارات اإلعتراضية أو الكلمات التي تقع بين فقرتين تظهر بين الفاعل و الخبر المسند يجب تجاهلها بهدف جعل الفعل‬-140
.‫متوافق‬
Joe, as well as his two cousins, calls me every day.
(Joe . . . calls me every day.)
My two aunts, along with their dog Albert, visit me every Sunday.
(My two aunts . . . visit me every Sunday.)
141. When two subjects are joined by OR or NOR, the latter subject governs the choice
of the predicate.
.‫ فإن الفاعل األخير يغطي اختيار الخبر‬OR,NOR ‫عندما يتصل فعلين مع بعضهما ب‬-141
Either Willie or his boys are going to repair our barn.
(. . . boys are going to . . . )
Neither the children nor their mother has flown before.
(. . . mother has flown . . .)
142. THERE is an introductory word; it is not the subject of any sentence. The subject
of a sentence determines whether the predicate is singular or plural, so one must
determine the actual subject.
‫ فاعل الجملة هو الذي يقرر فيما إذا كان الخبر مفرد أو جمع لذلك‬. ‫ هي كلمة بادئة و هي ليست فاعل أي جملة‬THERE-142
.‫يجب علينا أن نحدد الفاعل الحقيقي‬
There is a girl up there.
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(girl is the subject.,)
There are 300 apartments in my building.
(APARTMENTS is the subject.)
Singular Predicates‫األخبار االسنادية المفردة‬
143. A collective noun subject-one which refers to a group or collection of things or people-takes a
singular predicate when it is meant as a unit or a whole.
. ‫عندما يعني فاعل اسم المجموعة الذي يشير إلى مجموعة من األشياء أو الناس وحدة أو كل فإنه يأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد‬-143
The jury has been considering its verdict.
Snails is the one food on this menu I haven’t tasted.
144. When the subject is a unit of measurement or a mathematical equation, the predicate is
singular.
.‫ عندما يكون الفاعل وحدة قياس أو معادلة رياضية يكون الخبر اإلسنادي مفرد‬-144
Two and three is five.
Two miles is all that we need to walk today.
145. Collective ideas or notions take singular predicates.
.‫األفكار الجماعية تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد‬-145
Butter and eggs is my favorite breakfast.
146. Singular pronouns (AID 38) take singular predicates.
.‫الضمائر المفردة تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد‬-146
Everyone is writing in his or her book.
147. When two or more singular subjects are joined by OR or NOR, the predicate is singular.
.‫ فإن الخبر اإلسنادي يكون مفرد‬OR,NOR ‫عندما يرتبط اثنان أو أكثر من الفاعلين المفردين ب‬-147
Either Jim or Sharon is a heavy smoker; I forget which.
148. Some subjects may appear plural in form, but they are actually singular, thus requiring a
singular predicate.
‫ بعض الفا علين يمكن أن يظهروا بحالة الجمع بالشكل و لكنهم يكونون عادة مفردين و هكذا فهم يحتاجون إلى خبر إسنادي‬-148
.‫مفرد‬
The news is good tonight.
Economics is my favorite subject.
149. Relative pronouns whose antecedents are singular take singular predicates.
.‫ضمائر القرابة و التي يكون االسم الذي تدل عليه مفرد تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد‬-149
They will pay overtime to whoever works.
George is the one who receives all the mail in this house.
Plural Predicates‫الخبر اإلسنادي الجمع‬
150. A collective noun subject-one which refers to group or collection of things or people-takes a
plural predicate when the individual elements are considered as separate.
‫فاعل األسماء الجماعية و الذي يشير إلى مجموعة من األشياء أو الناس يأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع عندما نعتبر أن العناصر‬-150
.‫المفردة منفصلة‬
The team are discussing the game among predicates.
151. Plural pronouns (Aid 39) take plural predicates.
.‫الضمائر الجمع تأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع‬-151
Many are called, but few are chosen.
152. When two or more subjects are joined by AND , the predicate is plural.
.‫ يكون الخبر اإلسنادي جمع‬AND ‫عندما يتصل فاعالن أو أكثر ب‬-152
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Ellen and Mate come to class together.
153. A plural predicate is required when the subject is plural even though its complement is not.
.‫نحتاج إلى الخبر اإلسنادي الجمع عندما يكون الفاعل جمع و إن لم تكن تكملة الجملة كذلك‬-153
Books are Janet’s true passion.
154. Some subjects are always plural in form and construction (Aid 11); they always require a
plural predicate.
.‫بعض الفاعلين يكونون دائما ً بحالة الجمع في الشكل و التركيب لذا فهم يحتاجون دائما ً إلى خبر إسنادي جمع‬-154
The pants are lying on the chair.
155. Relative pronouns whose antecedents are plural take plural predicates.
.‫الضمائر الرابطة و التي تكون األسماء التي تدل عليها بحالة الجمع تأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع‬-155
Those who are late for work will have to be reprimanded.
The people elect their senators, who then go to Washington.
PRONOUNS AND CASE AGREEMENT ‫الضمائر و حالة التوافق‬
156. Pronouns must be in their proper cases. If a singular pronouns refers to two ntecedents, it
should agree with the nearer.
.‫ يجب أن يتوافق مع االسم األقرب‬, ‫ إذا أشار ضمير مفرد إلى اسمين سابقين‬.‫يجب أن تكون الضمائر في حاالتها الصحيحة‬-156
I’m going to make sure that Sam ََ and his two friends find their way to the picnic.
(THEIR refers to Sam ََand to his two friends. Since his TWO FRIENDS is closer to the pronouns,
it should be plural.)
157. When AS or THAN is used to introduce a clause, mentally complete the clause to determine
the case of the pronouns.
.‫ للبدأ بالعبارة أكمل العبارة بشكل ذهني لتقرر حالة الضمائر‬AS,THAN ‫عندما تستخدم‬-157
Paul is not as tall as I.
( . . . as I am tall.)
No one could have fought harder than they.
( . . . than they fought.)
the teacher caller calls on you more than she does me.
( . . . more than she calls on me.)
158. A pronoun appositive should be in the same case as the word it explains.
.‫بدل الضمير يجب أن يكون في نفس الحالة التي تشرحها الكلمة‬-158
The painters, Harry and I, were the first to arrive.
Mr. Roland bought lunch for both of us, Jackie and me.
Subjective Case Pronouns ‫ضمائر حالة الرفع‬
159. A predicate nominative is a word that renames or labels the subject and that follows a linking
verb (Aid 44-c). It must be in the nominative or subjective case.
.‫الخبر االسمي هو الخبر الذي يعيد تسمية الفاعل و الذي يتبع الفعل الرابط و يجب أن يكون في حالة الرفع‬-159
It was he who called you this morning.
The best player may be he.
160. WHO, as a relative pronoun which introduces a dependent clause, will always be in the
subjective case.
.‫ كضمير رابط و الذي يبتدأ العبارة التابعة دائما ً بحالة الرفع‬WHO ‫ يجب أن يكون‬-160
She is the student who scored the highest on the TOFEL
Those who laugh last, laugh best.
161. When a pronoun is the subject of a verb in a statement, a phrase, a question, etc., it must be in
the subjective case.
.‫عندما يكون الضمير فاعل الفعل الموجود في التعبير و شبه الجملة و السؤال فإنها يجب أن تكون في حالة الرفع‬-161
Do we have to go to church this Sunday?
Who knows, perhaps your candidate will win the election.
24
Objective Case Pronouns‫ضمائر حالة النصب‬
162. Both the subject and the object of an infinitive are always in the objective case.
.‫يكون كل من الفاعل و المفعول به للمصدر دائما ً في حالة النصب‬-162
They told her and me to leave immediately.
(subject)
It was they whom we wanted to choose.
(subject)
Did you take him to be me?
(object)
163. Both the direct and the indirect object of a verb are always in the objective case.
.‫ يكون كل من المفعول به المباشر و الغير مباشر للفعل في حالة النصب‬-163
The manger gave Tom and me the day off.
(indirect object)
I often see them at the market.
(direct object)
164. the object of a preposition is always in the objective case.
.‫ مفعول حرف الجر هو دائما ً في حالة النصب‬-164
Elsie always sits between Mary and me.
I gave the presents to him and her.
BUT is occasionally used as a preposition.
No tenants but his and me attended the meeting.
165. WHOM, when used as a relative pronoun, is the recipient of the action of a verb and is in the
objective case. Even when introduces a clause, note that the clause will already have a subject and
that the subject usually follows WHOM.
‫ حتى عندما نبتدأ عبارة الحظ أن‬.‫ كضمير رابط يكون مستقبل عمل الفعل و يكون في حالة النصب‬whom ‫عندما تستخدم‬-165
. whomً ‫العبارة لها فاعل و هذا الفاعل يتبع دائما‬
He is the player whom the coach rewarded.
The people whom they arrested had been quietly protesting.
Possessive Case Pronouns ‫حالة تملك الضمائر‬
166. When pronouns modify gerunds, the pronouns must be in the possessive case.
.‫ يجب أن يكون في حالة التملك‬ing ‫عندما يصف ضمير صيغة مصدر منتهية ب‬-166
I was delighted by your winning the award.
Pamela praises my singing the old hymns.
(She is praising my singing, not me)
167. it is preferable to avoid using the possessive case with inanimate objects.
.‫من المفضل عدم استخدام حالة التملك مع األشياء الغير حية‬-167
Poor:
The car’s color is red.
Better:
The color of the car is red.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURES‫الكالم المباشر و الغير مباشر‬
168. Direct discourse is the direct quoting of a speaker or writer; quotation marks are used to set off
the quoted words.
Indirect discourse is the indirect quoting of a speaker or writer, using introductory verbs such as
SAY, TELL, THINK, etc. No quotation marks are used.
..
SAY,TELL,THINK ‫ الكالم المباشر هو االقتباس المباشر من المتحدث أو الكاتب و يستعمل أفعال بادئة مثل‬-168
.‫الخ و ال تستخدم عالمات االقتباس‬
169. in indirect discourse, use the past tense to express a present sense and use the past perfect tense
to express the past.
.‫استخدم الزمن الماضي في الكالم الغير مباشر للتعبير عن شعور حالي و استخدم الزمن الماضي التام للتعبير عن الماضي‬-169
25
Direct:
Sue said: “I can meet you at midnight.”
Indirect: Sue said she could meet me at midnight.
Direct:
Ed said: “I told you not to come.”
Indirect: Ed said he had told us not to come.
Note that in the second example the pronouns I and YOU had to changed to HE and US in the
indirect discourse in order to agree with the new sentence structure.
‫ في الكالم الغير مباشر و ذلك للتوافق مع التركيب‬HE,US ‫ يجب أن يتغيروا إلى‬I ,YOU ‫الحظ في المثال الثاني أن الضمير‬
.‫الجديد للجملة‬
170. Commands in indirect discourse are expressed by using the in infinitive.
.‫نعبر عن األوامر في الكالم الغير مباشر باستخدام المصدر‬-170
Direct: Martin cried out: “Stop that!”
Indirect: Martin told them to stop it.
171. Questions in indirect discourse are expressed as statements.
.‫نعبر عن األسئلة في الكالم الغير مباشر كتقرير‬-171
Direct:
Alice asked: “Where does Ms. Susan live?”
Indirect: Alice asked were Ms. Susan lived.
172. Questions with no question words may require the introduction of IF or WHETHER in indirect
discourse.
Direct:
Indirect:
.‫ في الكالم الغير مباشر‬IF I,WHETHER ‫تحتاج األسئلة التي تكون بدون اسم استفهام إلى البدأ ب‬-172
Jack asked: “Is my brother here?”
Jack asked if his brother were here.
PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS‫توضع المحورات‬
173. When modifiers or verbals are misplaced they are said to dangling. It may be necessary to
rewrite sentences in order to avoid problems with dangling modifiers.
‫ عندما ال توجد أماكن للمحور أو االسم المشتق من الفعل يس ّمون متدليين لذا يجب كتابة الجمل لتجنب المشاكل مع المحورات‬-173
.‫المتدلية‬
174. Take care not to allow participles to dangle; they should always modify something.
.ً‫ يجب دائما ً أن تصف شيئا‬، ‫ كن حذرا ً أال تكون أسماء الفاعل متدليين‬-174
Poor:
Walking down the path, the flowers can be seen in all their glory.
Better:
If one walks down the path, one can see the flowers in all their glory.
(Who or what was walking down the paty?)
Poor: Thoroughly cooked, we removed the casserole from the oven.
Better:
When the chicken was thoroughly cooked, we removed it from the oven.
(Who what was thoroughly cooked?)
175. Be sure that gerunds do not dangle.
.‫ ال تتدلى‬ING ‫كن متأكدا ً أن صيغة المصدر التي تنتهي ب‬-175
Poor:
While moving the bureau, my back was hurt.
Better:
I hurt my back while I was moving the bureau.
One of the keys to insuring that gerunds are in their proper place is to watch for passive
constructions. When a gerund appears in a sentence in which the main clause is in the passive voice,
check to see that the gerund is properly placed.
‫ عندما يظهر المصدر في الجملة‬.‫واحد من الطرق التي تؤكد أن المصادر في مكانها الخاص هي مراقبة التراكيب المبنية للمجهول‬
.‫ افص لتر أن المصدر قد وضع في مكانه الخاص‬. ‫التي تكون بها العبارة الرئيسية في صيغة المبني للمجهول‬
176. Take care that infinitives do not dangle needlessly with nothing to refer to.
.‫ كن حذرا ً أن المصادر ال تتدلى في الجملة بدون فائدة وبدون وجود شيء تشير إليه‬-176
Poor:
To live life fully, friends are needed.
Better:
In order to live life fully, one must have friends.
177. Modifiers such as HARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY, etc., carry a negative meaning;
therefore they should not used as modifiers of other negative words.
26
‫ … الخ تحمل معنى النفي لذلك يجب أال يستخدموا كمحورات‬HARDLY,SCARCELY,BARELY ‫المحورات مثل‬-177
.‫لكلمات أخر منفية‬
Poor:
Gay didn’t hardly touch her dinner tonight.
Better:
Gay hardly touched her dinner tonight.
Better:
Gay didn’t hardly touch her dinner tonight.
WORD ORDER‫الترتيب‬
178. The order of words in a sentence may be vital to the intended meaning.
.‫يمكن أن يكون نظام الكلمات في الجملة أساسي للمعنى المقصود‬-178
Poor:
Wave a kiss and throw me from the train window.
(This may result in dearth.)
Better:
Wave and throw me a kiss from the train window.
(Is the train window doing the kissing?)
Better:
Wave from the train window and throw me a kiss.
(This sentence is logical and not misleading.)
179. A single word can change the whole meaning (Aid 101) of a sentence.
.‫إن كلمة واحدة يمكن أن تغير كل المعنى في الجملة‬-179
Last week I almost lost $100.
(No money was lost.)
Last week I lost almost $100.
(A lot money was lost.)
180. The placement of a phrase can be misleading.
.ً‫توضع شبه الجملة يمكن أن يكون مضلال‬-180
Poor:
Penelope helps the baby with a smile on her face.
(Who is smiling, Penelope or the baby?)
Better:
with a smile on her face, Penelope helps the baby.
(This sentence is logical and not misleading.)
181. The placement of a clause can be misleading.
.ً‫ توضع العبارة يمكن أن يكون مضلال‬-181
Poor: Difficulties confronted the company which must be solved.
(Is it the company which must be solved?)
Better:
Difficulties which must be solved confronted the company.
182. The placement of a pronoun can be misleading. A pronoun must be preceded by its antecedent.
.‫ يجب أن يُسبق الضمير باالسم الذي يدل عليه‬. ً‫توضع الضمير يمكن أن يكون مضلال‬-182
Poor: When she was seven years old, Katie’s sister got the mumps.
(Which person was seven years old at the time?)
Better:
Katie’s sister got the mumps when she was seven years old.
183. The normal word order for an English sentence is: subject, verb (predicate), indirect object,
direct object, adverbial modifiers.
Take care not to separate verbs from their direct objects with adverbial modifiers.
.‫ المحورات الظرفية‬،‫ المفعول به المباشر‬،‫ المفعول به الغير مباشر‬، ‫ الفعل‬، ‫الترتيب الطبيعي للجملة اإلنكليزية هو الفاعل‬-183
.‫كن حذرا ً بأن تفصل األفعال من مفعوليهم المباشرين بالمحورات الظرفية‬
Poor: We went last year to Lebanon.
Better: We went to Lebanon last year.
SENTENCE SENSE‫معنى الجملة‬
184. If a group of words is put together without a subject and a predicate (even those which are
understood), those words may be simply a sentence fragment.
‫ إذا وضعت مجموعة من الكلمات مع بعضها بدون فاعل أو خبر (حتى وإن فُهموا من سياق الكالم) تكون هذه الكلمات‬-184
.‫ببساطة أجزاء الجملة‬
185. a. Dependent clauses are often mistaken for complete sentences.
27
.‫ غالبا ً يكون هناك خطأ في العبارات التابعة في الجمل الكاملة‬-‫ أ‬-185
Poor: Mick was about to drop put of school. When he changed his mind.
(The second sentence is not a sentence; it an adverbial clause.)
Better: Just as he was about to drop out of school, Mick changed his mind.
Poor: She studied long hours to improve her grades.
Which happened in a short time.
(The second sentence is not a sentence; it is a clause which cannot stand by itself.)
Better: By studying long hours, she quickly improved her grades.
b. Phrases are often mistaken for complete sentences.
.‫غالبا ً ما تكون أشباه الجمل غير صحيحة في الجمل الكاملة‬-‫ب‬
Poor: After coming in from the train. He dog shook water all over the floor.
(The first sentence is not a sentence; it is a phrase with no predicate.)
Better: After she came in from the train, the dog shook water all over the floor.
186. Take care not to use commas to join independent clauses or sentences. Use a period, a
semicolon, or a coordinating conjunction to join them, or rewrite them to make one clause
subordinate.
‫ استخدم نقطة أو فاصلة منقوطة أو حرف عطف منسق‬.‫ كن حذرا ً أال تستخدم فواصل لتربط بين عبارتين أو جملتين مستقلتين‬-186
.‫ أو أعد كتابتهم لتجعل عبارة واحدة تابعة‬، ‫لتربطهم‬
Poor:
Sherry took the exam three times, she failed the exam.
Better:
Sherry took the exam three times, but she failed it each time.
Better:
Although Sherry took the exam three times, she failed it each time.
Better:
Sherry took the exam three times. Each time she took it, she failed it.
SHORT ANSWERS‫األجوبة المختصرة‬
187. Most direct question in English are answered with short answers, Short answers are formed by
adding the subject of the sentence to the auxiliary verb or the verb TO BE, and by adding the words
YES or NO.
‫ تُشكل األجوبة المختصرة بإضافة فاعل الجملة‬.‫ يجاب على معظم األسئلة المباشرة في اللغة اإلنكليزية باألجوبة المختصرة‬-187
.NO ‫ أو‬YES ‫ و بإضافة الكلمات‬TO BE ‫إلى الفعل المساعد أو إلى الفعل‬
Do you play bridge?
Yes, I do
No, I don’t.
Can he cook well?
Yes, he can
No he can’t.
In short answers, noun subjects are generally replaced by pronouns.
.‫ الضمائر عادة تحل محل االسم الفاعل‬، ‫في األجوبة المختصرة‬
Is Mr. Joey in class today?
Yes, he is.
No, he isn’t.
Is the rain falling hard?
Yes, it is.
No, it isn’t.
LOGIC‫المنطق‬
188. Every part of a sentence should contribute to the central thought.
Do not combine unrelated ideas.
.‫ ال تجمع بين أفكار غير مرتبطة ببعضها‬.‫يجب على كل جزء من الجملة أن يسهم الفكرة الرئيسية‬-188
Poor: The students were in the library and they were all from different countries.
(These are two independent ideas, both with merit. They do not belong in the same sentence,
whomever. If both are needed, rewrite the sentence making one the thoughts dependent on the
other.)
Better: Students from all over the world were using the library.
189. Be sure to arrange the thought in a sentence in a logical order.
.ً‫كن متأكدا ً أن ترتب الفكرة في الجملة في ترتيبا ً منطقيا‬-189
Poor: The butter was made, the icing was applied, and the cake was baked.
(Icing is the last step in cake baking.)
Better: The butter was made, the cake was baked, and the icing was applied.
190. Take care not to make illogical statements.
.‫ كن حذرا ً أال تصنع تعابير غير منطقية‬-190
28
Poor:
Reading street signs is a real problem for the illiterate.
(Since the illiterate cannot read, reading cannot be a problem Inability to read is the problem.)
Better:
The inability to read street signs is a real problem for the illiterate.
SUBORDINATION‫التابعية‬
191. Take care not to place the main or principal thought in a sentence in a subordinate position.
.‫ كن حذرا ً أال تضع الفكرة الرئيسية في الجملة في الموقع التابع‬-191
Poor: The car slowly rumbled to a halt as I realized we had run out of gas.
(The main idea is that the car is running out of gas. AS should not be introducing a main idea, it
should be introducing a subordinate clause.)
Better:
As the car slowly rumbled to a halt. I realized we had run out of gas.
192. Use the correct subordinating conjunction.
. ‫ استخدم حرف الجر التابع الصحي‬-192
Poor:
The reason she is fat because she overeats.
Better:
The reason she is fat is that she overeats.
193. Beware of using coordinating conjunction which may nullify subordination.
.‫ كن حذراً من استخدام أحرف الجر النظيرة ة التي يمكن أن تلغي التبعية‬-193
Poor: I want to buy the blue suit but which is too costly for me.
(But has no place in this sentence; the two ideas are not of equal rank and thus cannot be connected
by a coordinating conjunction. One idea is clearly dependent on the other.)
Better:
I want to buy the blue suit which is too costly for me.
194. Don’t fail to subordinate when it is valuable. Subordination is a good tool for sentence flow
and can be used to join tow ideas without coordinating them illogically.
‫ اإلتباع هي أداة جيدة من أجل انسيابية الجملة و يمكن أن يستخدم لوصل فكرتين‬. ً ‫ال تفشل في أن تتبع عندما يكون ذلك قيما‬-194
.‫بدون جعلهم متناظرتين بشكل غير منطقي‬
Poor: Josephine is in the room, and Hugh won’t speak to her.
Better: Even though Josephine is in the room, Hugh will not speak to her.
PARALLELISM‫التوازن‬
195. Similar ideas should be placed in the same kinds of grammatical constructions. Parallelism is
important for clarity and for smoothness.
.‫ إن التوازن هام من أجل الوضوح و الهدوء‬.‫يجب أن توضع األفكار المتشابهة في نفس النوع من التركيب القواعدي‬-195
Poor: It was cold, dark, and there was too much wind.
(The list begins with two adjective complements, so it should continue with anther one.)
Better: It was cold, dark, and windy.
Poor: Ice skating is more exciting than to roller skate.
(A gerund is being compared with an infinitive. It should be compared with anther gerund.)
Better: Ice skating is more exciting than roller skating.
(This description of an event uses the active voice, but then needlessly switches to the passive
voice.)
Poor: The motor sputtered, coughed, and then stalled.
196. It may be necessary to repeat a few words to clarify parallelism.
.‫ من الضروري إعادة بعض الكلمات لتوضي التوازن‬-196
Poor:
We called our father and boss.
(This could mean our father is our boss.)
Better:
We called our father and we called our boss.
Better:
We called our father and our boss.
Poor:
She wrote to her sister and roommate.
Better:
(This could mean her sister is her roommate.)
197. Correlative conjunction (either . . . or, not only . . . but also, etc.)
should only be used in sentences with parallel structures.
29
‫( يجب أن تستخدم فقط في الجمل مع التراكيب‬either…or, not only…but also ,etc) ‫أحرف الجر المترابطة‬-197
.‫المتوازنة‬
Poor: Roberta is not only a good secretary, but also she is able to organize things well.
(Parallelism using two predicate nominative would make for a smoother sentence.)
Better: Roberta is not only a good secretary, but also a good organizer.
REDUNDANCIES‫اإلسهاب‬
198. Unnecessary repletion of words should be avoided.
. ‫يجب تجنب االكتظاظ الغير هام للكلمات‬-198
Poor: Ralph went to the post office, to the supermarket, to the drugstore, and to the library.
(There is no need for all the prepositions.)
Better:
Ralph went to the post office, the supermarket, the drugstore, and the library.
199. In the following sentences, the underlined words or phrases are examples of redundancies
which may be deleted as unnecessary to the meaning or flow of a sentence.
‫ في الجمل التالية الكلمات و أشباه الجمل التي تحتها خط هي عبارة عن اسهابات و التي ربما يجب حذفها كضرورة من أجل‬-199
.‫المعنى أو سالسة الجملة‬
It came at a time when we were busy.
During the year of 1492, Columbus set sail.
Sara lives in the city of Boston.
Perhaps it may be that you don’t want to be here.
The table is made out of mahogany.
She came at the hour of 9:00.
Aunt Carol promised to send us a present at a later date.
Edward’s car cost the sum of $3,500.
I’ll be there in about two weeks’ time.
It was the consensus of opinion the Louise serves as our director.
(CONSENSUS names a collective opinion.)
THE FULL STOP‫النقطة‬
200. The full stop is used:
: ‫ تستخدم النقطة‬-200
201. At the end of all sentences except questions and exclamations, e.g.
.‫في نهاية الجملة ما عدا األسئلة و التعجب‬-201
He needs your help. (Statement)
Help him. (Command)
Will you help him? (Question)
He cried ,Help ! (Exclamation)
202. After abbreviation such as M. A. (=Master of Arts)
M. A. (=Master of Arts) ‫ بعد االختصارات مثل‬-202
H.M.S. Valiant (=Her Majesty , s ship Valiant ), U.S.A.
(= United States of America), e.g. (= Latin: example gratia
= for example ), etc . It is used after initials, e.g. C. H. Brown,
(= memorandum ).
But if the contraction includes the final letter of the word the full stop is often omitted, e.g. Dr,
Mr., Ltd., Chas. Etc
THE COLON‫النقطتين‬
203. The colon is used to separate two sentences of which the second explains more fully the
meaning of the first, i.e. it often
.‫ تستخدم النقطتين لتفصل جملتان حيث تشرح الثانية معنى الجملة األولى بشكل أكمل‬-203
means the same as , that is to say , ,e.g.
Richard, s work is unsatisfactory: his answers are thought30
less, his spelling is careless and his writing is bad.
204. It may also take the place of a conjunction introducing a clause of reason, e.g.
.‫ يمكن أن تأخذ مكان حرف العطف مبتدئة العبارة السببية‬-204
Thompson isn t going to join our firm: we couldn’t offer
Him a big enough salary (= because we couldn’t…)
205. To introduce a number of items in a list, or to introduce a quotation , e.g.
.‫ للبدأ بعدد من المواد كقائمة أو للبدأ باقتباس‬-205
He offered me the choice of any one of these for a wedding
Present: a set of fish knives, a pewter teapot, an electric toaster, a standard lamp.
Shakespeare said: ‘ Neither a borrower nor a lender be.’
’
THE SEMI-COLON‫الفاصلة المنقوطة‬
The semi-colon is useful when we need a longer pause than
Is indicated by a comma, as would happen if we used a full stop.
It is used:
‫إنها تستخدم‬.‫الفاصلة المنقوطة مفيدة عندما نحتاج إلى وقف أطول من ذاك الذي نشير إليه بالفاصلة و كما يحدث إذا استخدمنا نقطة‬
:
206. To separate co-ordinate sentences when a conjunction is not used, e.g.
.‫ للفصل بين جملتين متوازيتين عندما ال نستخدم حرف الجر‬-206
‘Your appearance pleased my friend; it delighted me; I have watched your behavior in strange
circumstances; I have studied how you played and how you bore your Losses; lastly, I have put you
to the test of a staggering Announcement, and you received it like an invitation to Dinner.’ --- (R.
L. Stevenson, The Suicide Club)
- Note how, in this example, shorter pauses are shown by the Commas.
207. With words like therefore, however, nevertheless, besides, also, otherwise, and sometimes so.
These words join sentences but are stronger than conjunctions like and, and so need a stronger
punctuation mark. Here are some examples:
‫ هذه الكلمات‬.therefore, however, nevertheless, besides, also, otherwise, sometimes ‫ مع كلمات مثل‬-207
. ‫ لذا فهي تحتاج إلى عالمة ترقيم أقو‬and ‫تربط الجمل و لكنها أقو من أحرف الجر مثل‬
You have done the works well; therefore I will pay you well.
You must take more exercise; otherwise you will get too fat.
Richard didn’t work hard; so he didn’t pass his examination.
THE COMMA‫الفاصلة‬
The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark And has many uses. Your common sense
and the desire to make Your meaning clear will often tell you where a pause is needed, But the
following ‘rules’, though they do not cover all the Uses may be helpful. A comma is generally used:
‫ يمكنك بالحس العام و بالرغبة لجعل المعنى الذي تقصده‬. ‫الفاصلة هي أكثر عالمات الترقيم استخداما ً و لها استخدامات متعددة‬
‫ لكنها يمكن أن تكون‬، ‫ بالرغم من أن األحكام التالية ال تغطي كل االستعماالت‬.‫واض أن تقرر أين تحتاج وضع عالمة الوقف‬
: ‫ تستخدم الفاصلة عادة‬.‫مساعدة‬
208.To record a list of things, etc., e.g.
‫ لتسجيل قائمة باألشياء‬-208
At the party we had cakes, jellies, ices, biscuits, chocolate, and lemonade.
- Notice that the comma is usually put before and the last Item. Some writers disagree with this.
209.To mark off direct speech:
: ‫ لفصل الكالم المباشر‬-209
,
‘Tell me, how you know all that .’
George replied, ‘I heard it on the radio.’
210.To mark off sentences or clauses where a pause is needed
In reading. This is almost always the case with an adverb
31
.‫هذه هي الحالة مع الظرف‬.‫لفصل الجمل و العبارات حيث نحتاج للوقف في القراءة‬-210
Although it was foggy, we played the match.
I have explained this work to Richard, but he still doesn’t Understand it.
If you will help me, I will help you.
When an adverb clause follows the principal clause, the Omission of the comma places more
emphasis on the adverb Clause, e.g.
.‫عندما تتبع العبارة الظرفية العبارة الرئيسية فإن حذف الفاصلة يجسد تأكيد على العبارة الظرفية‬
‘He came because I asked him to’ (answering the question, ‘Why did he come?’)
211.To mark off words used in addressing a person (the Nominative of address), e.g.
)‫ لفصل الكلمات التي تستخدم في مخاطبة شخص ما ( حالة الرفع في المخاطبة‬-211
George, I hope you and Mary can come to the party.
I should be very glad, Charles, if you would do this for me.
212.To mark off words or phrases like however ,1therefore ,of Course, for instance, etc
.‫…الخ‬however, therefore, of course, for instance ‫ لفصل الكلمات و أشباه الجمل مثل‬-212
You know, of course ,the way to Lawton; I needn’t, therefore send you a route map.
213. In descriptive titles such as:
: ‫ في وصف األلقاب مثل‬-213
Elizabeth II, Queen of Great Britain….
I saw Mr. Smith, your teacher, this morning.
214. To mark off phrases containing a participle when a pause is required in reading:
.‫ للفصل بين أشباه جمل تتألف من مصدر عندما نحتاج للوقف في القراءة‬-214
George, seeing that hi brother was hurt, ran to help him.
215.The comma is not used in English to separate a defining Relative clause2 or a noun clause from
the rest of the sentence. It must be used before the relative pronoun in a non-defining Clause.
‫ يجب استخدامها‬.‫ ال تُستخدم الفاصلة في اللغة اإلنكليزية لتفصل العبارة الرابطة ال ُمحددة أو العبارة االسمية من باقي الجملة‬-215
.‫قبل الضمير الرابط في العبارة الغير محددة‬
Here is the book that you wanted. (Defining Clause)
He asked me where I was going. (Noun clause)
George, who is in my class, has won a scholarship. (NonDefining Clause)
Question Mark‫إشارة االستفهام‬
216.A Question Mark is used after a direct question, but not after an indirect one e.g.
Direct .I said to him, ‘When are you going to Scotland.
.‫تستخدم إشارة االستفهام بعد السؤال المباشر ال غير المباشر‬-216
THE EXCLAMARýTUýION MARK‫إشارة التعجب‬
217.The Exclamation Mark is used after an interjection, an Exclamatory sentence or an expression
of great feeling.
.‫تستخدم إشارة التعجب بعد صوت تعجب أو جملة تعجب أو بعد التعبير عن شعور عظيم‬-217
‘Hello! I didn’t expect to see you.’
‘There goes our train!’
‘What a wonderful day that was!’
THE DASH)‫الشاحطة (الشرطة‬
218.The dash is used to indicate (I) an afterthought-an emendation, or (2) an unexpected turn in a
sentence, e.g.
.‫تغير غير متوقع في الجملة‬-2. ‫ التفصي عن فكرة تخطر في البال‬-1 ‫تستخدم الشاحطة لتشير إلى‬-218
I spoke to Mary-you know, Harry’s wife-and told her what you said,
The information that Fred gives you on every subject under the sun is always very full and is given
with an air of complete confidence. There is only ting wrong with it-it is never correct.
32
QUOTATION MARKS‫عالمات االقتباس‬
219.Quotation Marks are used to enclose direct speech.
‫تستخدم عالمات االقتباس لتغطي كالم مباشر‬-219
I said, ‘I have only spoken to him on one occasion.’
He shouted, ‘What are you doing here?’
I have spoken to him, a I said, ‘on only one occasion.’‘
Note that the full stop, exclamation mark, the question mark and the comma come inside the
quotation marks.
Quotation marks may be single (‘’) or double (“”).
.)" "(‫يمكن لعالمات االقتباس أن تكو ن مفردة )’‘( أو مزدوجة‬
THE APOSTROPHE‫الفاصلة العليا‬
220.The Apostrophe is used to show (1) the possessive case, e.g.
.‫تستخدم الفاصلة العليا لتُري حالة التملك‬-220
My brother’s house, Jon’s wife, the boy’s cap (singular, one boy)
The boys’ school (plural, for a lot of boys)
221.The omission of a letter or letters, e.g.
.‫حالة حذف حرف أو مجموعة حروف‬-221
1
I’ve (= I have) , don’t (= do not ), it’s ( = it is ), O’clock (= of the clock ) .
THE USE OF CAPITALS‫استخدام األحرف الكبيرة‬
222.For the beginning of a sentence.
.‫لبداية الجملة‬-222
223.For proper nouns, e.g. Joan, November, London, etc.,
.‫ألسماء العلم‬-223
224.And for adjectives formed from proper nouns e.g.
.‫للصفات التي تتشكل من أسماء العلم‬-224
Scotch whisky, the French language, Elizabethan poets.
225.A capital letter is used for the name of God, Christ, and Trinity.Bible, etc., and a pronoun or
possessive adjective applying to god as a capital letter, e.g.
‫الخ و الضمائر و صفات التملك المنسوبة‬.. ‫يستخدم الحرف الكبير من أجل أسماء هللا و المسي و و الثالوث و الكتب السماوية‬-225
.‫هلل‬
They trusted in God That He would save is people.
226.For the chief words in titles of people, books, plays, Etc., e.g.
.‫ في الكلمات الرئيسية في ألقاب الناس و الكتب و المسرحيات …الخ‬-226
Elizabeth the Second, Alfred the great. A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
227.For salutations and forms of address, e.g. on letters:
.‫ من أجل التحيات و أشكال األلقاب‬-227
Dr, Mr., Miss, Mr., and for the greeting and complimentary close, e.g. Dear Sir, Yours faithfully.
228.For the abbreviations of degrees, titles, etc.
.‫ من أجل اختصارات الدرجة و العناوين‬-228
M.P. (=ember of parliament), Q.C. (= Queen’s Counsel) , B.Sc. (=Bachelor of Science).
229.The opening word of direct speech, e.g.
.‫ من أجل الكلمات البادئة في الكالم المباشر‬-229
He said, ‘What do you want?’
230.The capital letter is not repeated in the second part of a Broken quotation, e.g.
.‫ال يتكرر الحرف الكبير في الجزء الثاني من االقتباس المفصول‬-230
‘I am working hard now’, e said in order to provide for my old ago.’
231.For the first word in each line of poetry:
.‫ من أجل الكلمة األولى في كل بداية خط في الشعر‬-231
She lived unknown, and few could know
When Lucy ceased to be;
33
But she is in her grave, and Oh,
The difference to me! (Words worth)
But some modern poets disregard this convention.
232.For the first person singular I (but not for me, my, etc.)
.‫ من أجل الشخص األول المفرد‬-232
233.For personification (generally in poetry):
)‫ من أجل التشخيص (عادة في الشعر‬-233
O wild West Wide, thou breath of Autumn’s being.
If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley)
234.SOME NOTES ON CONTRACTIONS‫بعض المالحظات حول االختصارات‬-234
235. Apostrophes are used in contractions to indicate omitted letters.
Contractions are used less frequently in writing than in speech, but they are found in all uses of the
language. These are some common verb contractions with pronouns:
‫ال يتكرر استخدام االختصارات في الكتابة كما في الكالم‬. ‫ تستخدم الفواصل العليا في االختصار لتشير إلى أحرف محذوفة‬-235
: ‫ و هذه بعض اختصارات األفعال الشائعة مع الضمائر‬.‫لكنهم يتواجدون في كل استخدامات اللغة‬
These are some common verb contractions with the
adverb NOT:
I’d (I had, I would)
Aren’t (are not)
You’d (you had, you would)
Isn’t (is not)
He’d (he had, he would)
Weren’t (were not)
She’d (she had, she would)
Wasn’t (was not)
It’d (it had, it would)
Can’t (can not)
They’d (they had, they would)
Couldn’t (could not)
I’m (I am)
Won’t (will not)
You’re (you are)
Wouldn’t (would not)
He’s (he is, he has)
Shan’t (shall not)
She’s (she is, she has)
Shouldn’t (should not)
It’s (it is, it has)
Needn’t (need not)
We’re (we are)
Mustn’t (must not)
They’re (they are)
Haven’t (have not)
I’ve (I have)
Hasn’t (has not)
You’ve (you have)
Hadn’t (had not)
We’ve (we have)
Don’t (do not)
They’ve (they have)
Doesn’t (does not)
Let’s (let us)
Didn’t (did not)
What’s (what is)
That’s (that is)
I’ll (I will. I shall)
You’ll (you will, you shall)
He’ll (he will, he shall)
She’ll (she will, she shall)
It’ll (it will, it shall)
We’ll (we will, we shall)
They’ll (they will, they shall)
236. AINT is not acceptable as a contraction for any words in English.
.‫ ليست مقبولة كاختصار ألجل أي كلمة في اللغة اإلنكليزية‬AINT -236
237. Selected Usage Problems
‫أخطاء منتقاة في االستعمال‬-237
238. ACCEPT is a verb meaning to receive willingly.
EXCEPT is a preposition meaning excluding, other than, or but; or a verb meaning to leave out.
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.‫ هو فعل يعني أن يستقبل برضا‬ACCEPT -238
.‫ هو حرف جر يعني االستثناء أو ماعدا أو لكن أو فعل يعني يهمل‬EXCEPT
Did you accept his offer? Yes, except for the delivery time.
They excepted him from testifying at the trial.
239. ADAPT is a verb meaning to change.
ADEPT is an adjective meaning skillful.
ADOPT is a verb meaning to take as one’s own.
.‫ هو فعل يعني يغير‬ADAPT -239
.‫ هي صفة تعني بارع‬ADEPT.‫ هو فعل يعني يتخذ خاصية شخص‬ADOPT The adept could adopted the orphan boy, who quickly adapted to the their ways.
240. AFFECT is a verb meaning to influence.
AFFECT is a noun meaning result.
.‫ هو فعل يعني يؤثر‬AFFECT -240
.‫ هو اسم يعني نتيجة‬AFFECT This will have a profound effect on me. Will it affect you too?
241. Use ALSO and TOO in affirmative statements and questions.
Use EITHER in negative sentences
‫ في التعابير اإليجابية و في األسئلة‬ALSO,TOO ‫استخدم‬-241
.‫ في الجمل المنفية‬EITHER ‫ استخدم‬Do you want the sports section, too?
No, and I don’t want the financial section either.
242. An ALLUSION is an indirect reference.
An ILLUSION is an unreal image.
DLUSION is a false belief.
To ALLUDE is to mention indirectly.
To ELUDE is to evade or avoid.
To DELUDE is to deceive.
.‫ هو داللة غير مباشرة‬AN ALLUSION -242
.‫ هي صورة غير حقيقية‬AN ILUSION .‫ هي اعتقاد خاطئ‬DELUSION .‫ هو أن تذكر بشكل غير مباشر‬TO ALLUDE .‫ هو أن تتهرب أو تتجنب‬TO ELUDE .‫ هو أن تخدع‬TO DELUDE Norman alluded to a book that his teacher had never read.
We eluded the man pursuing us.
The swindler deluded many people.
The two warring leaders made an allusion to the illusion of peace which surrounded their
talks; it was a hopeless delusion.
243. An ALUMNUS (plural ALUMNI) is a male graduate.
An ALUMNA (plural ALUMNE) is a female graduate.
.‫ هو متخرج مذكر‬AN ALUMNUS -243
.‫ هي متخرجة مؤنث‬AN LUMNA244.ANYONE, as a one-word term, means anybody.
.‫ هي كلمة واحدة و تعني أي شخص‬ANYONE -244
ANY ONE, as a two-word term, means any single person or thing.
.‫ ككلمتين و تعني أي شخص أو شيء مفرد‬ANYONE
245.BAD is an adjective.
.‫ هو صفة‬BAD -245
BAD drives badly.
246.A BILLION means:
: ‫ تعني‬A BILLION -246
1,000,000,000 in America; 1,000,000,000,000 in Britain and in Germany.
247.To BRING means to move something toward the speaker.
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To TAKE means to move something away from the speaker.
.‫ تعني أن تحرك شيء ما باتجاه المتكلم‬TO BRING -247
.‫ تعني أن تحرك شيء ما بعيداً عن المتكلم‬ETO TAKR Take this pie over to your grandmother’s, and when you
Return, bring her laundry with you, so we can do it for her.
248.To COMPARE is to examine for similarities or resemblance.
To COMPARE is to examine for differences.
.‫ هو أن تفحص التشابهات أو الشبه‬TO COMPARE -248
.‫ هو أن تفحص االختالفات‬TO COMPARE 249.The terms CONTROLLER and COMPTROLLER both describe the chief
financial officer of an organization; there is no difference in meaning.
‫ يصفان القائد المالي في المنظمة أي أته ال يوجد اختالف في‬CONTROLLER, COMPTROLLER ‫ المصطلحان‬-249
.‫المعنى‬
250.An EMIGRANT is a person leaving one country for another.
An IMMIGRANT is a person coming into one country from another.
.‫ هو شخص يغادر من بلد إلى آخر‬AN EMIGRANT -250
.‫ هو شخص يأتي إلى بلد معين من بلد آخر‬AN IMMIGRANT 251.FEW (fewer) is used with countable nouns.
LESS is used with uncountable nouns (collectives).
.‫ تستخدم مع األسماء المعدودة‬FEW(fewer) -251
.‫ تستخدم مع األسماء الغير معدودة‬LESS Fewer dollars
Less money
252.GOOD is an adjective and must modify a noun.
WELL as an adverb must modify a verb, an adjective, or anther adverb; as an adjective it can mean
healthy.
.‫ هو صفة و يجب أن يصف االسم‬GOOD -252
.‫يمكن أن يعني كصفة الصحة الجيدة‬.‫ هو ظرف و يجب أن يصف الفعل و الصفة أو ظرف آخر‬WELLHe is a good mechanic.
He drives well.
James was sick, but now he’s well.
253.A person is HANGED when executed by HANGING.
ُ ‫ الشخص‬-253
.HANGING ‫شنق عندما يُعدم بكلمة‬
A picture is HUNG on a wall.
.‫الصورة معلقة على الحائط‬
254. To IMPLY means to hint or suggest.
To INFER means to draw a conclusion.
.‫ تعني يشير أو يقترح‬TO IMPLY -254
.‫ تعني ليرسم النتيجة‬TO INFER I imply it by what I say to you.
I infer it form what you say to me.
255. INCREDIBLE means improbable or unbelievable.
INCREDULOUS means skeptical or unbelieving.
.‫ تعني غير ممكن أو غير قابل للتصديق‬INCREDIBLE -255
.‫ تعني شكوكي أو غير مؤمن‬INCREDULOUS June told an incredible story to an incredulous audience.
256. Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or to place. (Principal parts: lay , laid,
laying , laid)
. ‫ هو فعل متعد يعني يضع‬LAY -256
257. LIE is an intransitive verb meaning to recline, rest, or remain.
(Principal parts: lie, lay, lying, lain)
.‫ يستري أو يبقى‬، ‫ هو فعل الزم و يعني يستلقي‬LIE -257
Lay the books on the table.
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Yesterday they laid our new rug.
If Lorraine is tired, have her lie down for a nap.
Yesterday she lay down for a nap.
258. To LET means to permit or to rent.
To LEAVE means to cause to remain or to go away.
‫ تعني يسم أو يستأجر‬TO LET -258
.‫ يعني أن يسبب أن يبقى أو أن يغادر‬TO LEAVE Let me help you find a new apartment; I know a building manager
who has apartments to let.
Leave the door open; I am going to leave in a few minutes.
259. A MAJORITY is more than half of the total.
A PLURALITY is the highest number within a greater number, but less than one-half.
.‫ هي أكثر من نصف الكل‬A MAJORITY -259
.‫ هي أعلى رقم ضمن الرقم الكبير و لكنه أقل من النصف الواحد‬A PLURALITY 260. MUCH modifies uncountable nouns such as COFFEE.
.COFFE ‫ تصف األسماء الغير معدودة مثل‬MUCH -260
261. MANY modifies countable nouns such as CUP.
.CUP ‫ تصف األسماء المعدودة مثل‬MANY -261
Do you drink much coffee?
How many cups of coffee have you had today?
262.Both MUCH and MANY are used in both negative sentences and in questions.
263.A LOT OF is used in affirmative statements.
I drink a lot of coffee.
‫ تستخدمان في الجمل المنفية و في األسئلة‬MUCH,MAY ‫ كل من‬-263
264. To PRECEDE means to go before.
To proceed means to go continue to advance.
.‫ تعني أن يذهب قبل‬TO PRECEDE -264
.‫ تعني أن يستمر في التقدم‬TO PROCEED A precedes B in the alphabet.
You may proceed with your work.
265. PRINCIPAL as a noun means the director of a school, a person who is in charge, or a sum of
money; as an adjective it means main or most important.
‫ أما كصفة فهي تعني‬.‫ كاسم تعني مدير المدرسة أو الشخص الذي يكون في وصية أو مجموعة من النقود‬PRINCIPAL -265
.‫الرئيسي أو األكثر أهمية‬
266. PRINCIPLE is a noun meaning rule, law, or basic truth.
.‫ هو اسم يعني القاعدة أو القانون أو الحقيقة األساسية‬PRINCIPLE -266
The principal at our high Scholl made sure that we learned the principles of good citizenship; that
was his principal accomplishment.
267. RAISE is a transitive verb requiring a direct object. It means to lift, to elevate,
.‫ و هو يعني يرفع أو يسمو‬.‫ هي فعل متعد يحتاج إلى مفعول به مباشر‬RAISE -267
or rear children. (Principal parts: raise, raised, raising, raised)
RISE is an intransitive verb taking no direct object. It means to assume a standing position, to
get out of bed, or to increase in value. (Principal parts: rise, rose, rising, risen)
.‫ هو فعل الزم ال يأخذ مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني أن تفترض حالة معينة أو أن تخرج خارج السرير أو أن تزداد في القيمة‬RISE
Raise the window.
She raised twelve children by herself.
We all rose from the table at once.
What time did you rise this morning?
268. SET is a transitive verb requiring a direct object. It means to put or place in a specific spot.
(Principal parts: set, set, setting, set) SIT is an intransitive verb taking no direct object. It means to
assume a resting position with the body
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supported by the buttocks. (Principal parts: sit, sat, sitting, sat)
. ‫ هو فعل متعد يحتاج إلى مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني أن تضع في بقعة محددة‬SET -268
.‫ هو فعل الزم ال يأخذ مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني افتراض موقع راحة للجسم ُمساند بردفان‬SIT
Set the peanut butter jar on the shelf.
Mom told us all to sit down.
269. Use SAY with direct quotations and with indirect quotations when the person spoken to is not
mentioned.
.‫ في االقتباس المباشر و الغير المباشر عندما يكون الشخص الذي نتحدث إليه غير مذكور‬SAY ‫ استخدم‬-269
270. UseTELL with indirect quotations when the person spoken to is mentioned.
.‫ في االقتباس الغير مباشر عندما يكون الشخص الذي نتحدث إليه مذكور‬TELL ‫ استخدم‬-270
Bill said. “Where are you?”
Tony says he is studying chemistry.
Tony told us he was studying.
Here are a few idiomatic uses of TEEL:
Tell the truth
tell a story
Tell a lie
tell time
271. STATIONARY means standing in one place.
.‫ تعني أن تقف في موقع واحد‬STATIONARY -271
272. STATIONARY means writing paper.
.‫ تعني ورقة الكتابة‬STATIONARY -272
While Ann browsed in the stationery store, her dog stood stationery outside the door.
273.Still AS AN ADVERB MEANS EVEN UP TO THE PRESENT TIME. It is usually placed
before the main verb.
.‫ إنها عادة تتوضع قبل األفعال الرئيسية‬، ‫ تعني حتى الزمن الحالي‬STILL ‫ بما أن الظرف‬-273
274.ANYMORE means at the present time. It is used only in a negative sentence, and is usually
placed at the end of the sentence.
.‫ تعني في الوقت الحالي و تستخدم فقط في الجملة المنفية و عادة تتوضع في نهاية الجملة‬ANYMORE -274
Are you still going to school? No, not anymore.
275.UNTIL is used with time expressions.
.‫ تستخدم في التعبير عن الوقت‬UNTIL -275
276.AS FAR AS and TO are used with distance expressions.
.‫ تستخدم في التعبير عن المسافة‬AS FAR AS -276
I’ll wait until 5:00 this afternoon.
I’ll walk as far as the corner.
I’ll walk to the corner.
277.One WINS a game, but one BEATS an opponent.
.‫ واحد يرب اللعبة لكن واحد يسحق الخصم‬-277
New York won the World Series by beating Los Angles.
278.Use YET only in negative sentences and in questions.
. ‫ فقط في الجمل المنفية و في األسئلة‬YET ‫ استخدم‬-278
279.Use ALREADY only in affirmative sentences and in questions.
.‫ فقط في الجمل اإليجابية و في األسئلة‬ALREADY ‫ استخدم‬-279
We have already been to Egypt three times, but we haven’t
Seen the pyramids yet.
280-use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
99 ‫ إلى‬21 ‫نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات في األعداد المركبة من‬-280
281. Use a hyphen in compound noun or compound adjectives that has the force of a single word.
Mother-in-law
.‫ نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات في األسماء المركبة و الصفات المركبة التي قوة كلمة مفردة‬-281
282. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line. Avoid dividing words at the end of a line if
the words are proper names or if the division would result in one letter remaining on a line alone.
‫ تجنب فصل الكلمات في نهاية السطر إذا كانت الكلمات أسماء علم‬. ‫ نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات لفصل الكلمات في نهاية السطر‬-282
.‫أو إذا كان الفصل الذي ينتج عن حرف واحد يبقى في السطر لوحده‬
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