* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Document
Zulu grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Irish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Sanskrit grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Japanese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ojibwe grammar wikipedia , lookup
Georgian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ukrainian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Hebrew grammar wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Udmurt grammar wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Kannada grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Macedonian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old Norse morphology wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Old English grammar wikipedia , lookup
Russian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Lithuanian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Turkish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Italian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Yiddish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
Swedish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Dutch grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Nounsاألسماء 1. Nouns are names of persons, places, things, ideas, qualities, activities, etc. . األسماء هي أسماء ألشخاص و أماكن و أشياء و أفكار و صفات و نشاطات-1 Common and Proper Nounsاألسماء الشائعة و أسماء العلم 2. Common nouns name the kind or class of a persons, places, etc. Proper nouns are always capitalized. . أسماء العلم دائما ً تكون بأحرف كبيرة.الخ.. األسماء الشائعة تسمي الصفوف و األشخاص و األماكن-2 George Washington Costa Rica Collective Nouns أسماء الجموع 3. Collective nouns are the names of collections or groups of persons, places, things, etc. .الخ.. أسماء الجموع هي أسماء المجموعات أو مجموعة من األشخاص و األماكن و األشياء-3 Team jury audience These nouns are singular in form, but may be singular or plural in usage. Whenever the noun is presented so that we think of the whole group, it should be used with a singular verb. حينما يُقدم االسم حيث أننا أوالً نفكر في.هذه األسماء جميعها مفردة في الشكل و لكنها ممكن أن تكون مفردة أو جمع في االستخدام . يجب أن يستخدم مع فعل مفرد، كل المجموعة Their family always eats at 6:00. Whenever the noun is presented so that we think primarily of the individual members of the group, it should take a plural verb. . يجب أن يأخذ فعل جمع، حينما يُقدم االسم حيث أننا نفكر أوالً في بأعضاء المجموعة المفردين The family were brought to the restaurant one by one in separate cars. (See also Aids 143 and 150.) Forming the Plurals of Nounsتشكيل الجمع من األسماء 4. Most plurals are formed by adding S. .S معظم الجمع يتشكل بإضافة-4 Phone phones basket baskets 5. Nouns ending in S, Z, CH, SH, or X form plurals by adding ES. )es( ) تشكل الجمع بإضافةch, sh, x ),s, z األسماء التي تنتهي ب-5 Glass glasses tax taxes 6. Add S to form plurals of letters and numbers. . ) لألحرف و األرقام لتشكل الجمعs( أضف-6 M Ms 8 8s 7. Nouns ending in Y form plural in two ways: : تشكل الجمع بطريقتينY األسماء التي تنتهي ب-7 a. If a consonant precedes the Y, change the Y to I and add ES. )ES( و نضيفI ) إلىY( حرف ساكن نبدلY)( أ) إذا سبق Baby babies candy candies b. If a vowel precedes the Y, follow the general rule for plurals, that is, add an S. .) حرف صوتي نتبع القاعدة العامة للجمعY( إذا سبق-ب 8. Nouns ending in O form plurals in two ways: : ) تشكل الجمع بطريقتينO( األسماء التي تنتهي ب-8 a. If a consonant precedes the O, add ES. .ES) حرف ساكن نضيفO( إذا سبق-أ Tomato tomatoes hero heroes b. If a vowel precedes the O, add S. .S نضيفO إذا سبق حرف صوتي-ب Radio radios studio studios Note the musical terms and instruments ending in O form the plural by adding S. Piano pianos alto altos 9. Some hyphenated nouns form their plurals by adding S to the first word. . إلى الكلمة األولىSS بعض الكلمات التي تتصل ببعضها بشرطة تشكل الجمع بإضافة-9 Mother-in-law mothers-in-law 1 10. The plurals of proper nouns are formed by adding S. THE or a umber usually precedes the plural of proper nouns. الحظ أنه عندما ينتهي الجمع. أو العدد الذي يسبق عادة الجمع من األسماء الصحيحةS, THE جمع أسماء العلم يشكل بإضافة-10 .ES) فإن الجمع يكون بإضافةS( ب Mary the Marys Troy the Troys - Note that when a proper ends in S, the plural is formed by adding ES. Jones the Joneses Thomas the Thomases Unusual Plural Nounsأسماء الجمع الغير عادية 11. Some nouns are always plural in form and plural in construction (requiring plural verbs). .) بعض األسماء تكون دائما ً جمع في الشكل و في التركيب (تحتاج إلى أفعال جمع-11 Clothes proceeds surroundings Environs remains thanks Pants riches trousers 12. Some nouns are always plural in form but singular in construction (requiring singular verbs). .)( تحتاج إلى أفعال مفردة. بعض األسماء هي دائما ً جمع في الشكل و لكنها مفردة في التركيب-12 Electronics gymnastics Mathematics news Genetics linguistics Billiards United States 13. Some nouns have tricky plural forms which must be studied. . بعض األسماء لها أشكال مميزة و يجب أن تدرس-13 a. some are the same in the singular and plural form. . بعضها تكون نفسها في المفرد والجمع-أ Swine swine sheep sheep Salmon salmon moose moose b. Some form the plural by applying the-forming rules of the language from which the word originated (usually Latin) . بعضها يشكل الجمع باستخدام األحكام األصلية للغة التي أتت منها الكلمة-ب Datum data radius radii Crisis crises alumnus alumni Index indices antenna antennae c. Some are completely irregular and must be memorizes. . بعضها شاذة تماما ً و يجب أن تُحفظ-ت Child children woman women Mouse mice goose geese Tooth teeth wife wives Loaf loaves foot feet The Possessive Case of Nounsحالة تملك الكلمات 14. The possessive case indicates that the noun possesses, has or owns something. Possession is shown by an apostrophe and an S. a. for most singular nouns, add an apostrophe and then an S. )S( نستطيع أن نر حالة التملك بإضافة فاصلة و. حالة التملك تشير أن االسم يتملك أو يمتلك شيء ما-14 )S( من أجل معظم األسماء المفردة نضيف فاصلة و من ثم-أ captain captain’s vest boy boy’s dog b. for most plural nouns ending in S, add an apostrophe after the S. .S أضف فاصلة علوية بعدS من أجل معظم األسماء التي تنتهي ب-ب captains captains’ vests boys boys’ dogs 15. Irregular plural forms may require an ‘S. . ‘s أشكال الجمع الغير نظامية تحتاج إلى-15 The men the men’s jackets 16. Most proper nouns which are singular, but which end in S, require an ‘s. .S‘ تحتاج إلىS معظم أسماء العلم المفردة و التي تنتهي ب-16 Keats Keats’s poetry 2 17. With a hyphenated noun, show possession by placing the ‘S after the last element of the term. .‘ بعد آخر عنصر من العبارةS في الكلمات المرتبطة ببعضها بشاحطة يمكن أن نشاهد التملك بوضع-17 Brother-in-law my brother-in-law’s house 18. Two or more nouns in a compound construction show possession in two ways: : اثنين أو أكثر من األسماء في التراكيب المركبة تشكل التملك بطريقتين-18 a. Use ‘S after the last element to show joint possession. . بعد آخر عنصر لتظهر التملك المترافقS‘ استخدم-أ Chan and Tobe’s home (they both live in or own the same home) b. Use ‘S after each element to show separate possession. . بعد كل عنصر لتظهر التملك المنفصلS‘ استخدم-ب Chan’s and Tobe’s homes (each lives in or owns his own home) 19. Sometimes the noun which is modified by the possessive noun form is not expressed. . في بعض األحيان االسم الذي يوصف باسم تملك فإن الشكل ال يُعبر عنه-19 Whose keys did you give me? I gave you Karen’s. PRONOUNالضمائر 20. Pronouns are words used in place of nouns, usually to avoid repetition of the nouns to which they refer. They designate their nouns without naming them. فهم يشيرون إلى األسماء بدون أن. الضمائر هي كلمات تستخدم عوضا ً عن األسماء لتجنب تكرار األسماء التي يشيرون إليها-20 .يسموهم Pronouns and Their Antecedents 21. The relationship between a pronoun and the noun to which it refers—its antecedent—must be clear. If pronouns are vague, unclear, or carelessly used, the sentence should be rewritten. إذا كانت الضمائر غامضة و غير واضحة أو استعملت. العالقة بين الضمير و االسم الذي يشير إليه يجب أن تكون واضحة-21 .بشكل ال مبال يجب أن تعاد كتابة الجملة Poor: Peter told Emma to take some vitamins. Better: Peter told Emma to take some vitamins. Poor: Mary read that in Norway they eat a lot of potatoes. Better: Mary read that Norwegians eat a lot of potatoes. Personal Pronouns الضمائر الشخصية 22. Personal pronouns are so commonly used that it a good idea to memorize the following chart showing the declension of the personal pronoun. . الضمائر الشخصية تستخدم بشكل شائع-22 NUMBER PERSON NOMINATIVE (SUBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE OBJECTIVE ) CASE CASE CASE Singular First I my, mine me Second you your, yours you Third he his him She her, hers her It its it Plural first we our, ours us Second you your, yours you Third they their, theirs them 23. Because of the frequency of errors in personal pronoun usage, note the following: : بسبب تكرار األخطاء في استخدام الضمائر الشخصية الحظ التالي-23 a. YOU always takes a plural verb. . تأخذ دائما ً فعل جمعYOU -أ b. HE, SHE, and IT must not used with DON”T (the contraction of DO NOT); since they are singular, they must use the form DOESN”T. .DOESN’T يجب أن يأخذوا شكل. بما أنهم مفردينDON’T يجب أال تستخدم معHE, SHE, IT -ب c. Personal pronouns never use an apostrophe to show possession. . الضمائر الشخصية ال تستخدم الفاصلة العليا لتُري التملك-ت d. IT’S is a contraction of IT IS. 3 .IT IS هي اختصار لIT’S -ث e. THERE is a possessive pronoun; THERE is an expletive; THERE IS a contraction of THEY ARE. . فهو حشوTHERE هو ضمير تملكTHEIR-ج 24. Do not use personal pronouns directly after their antecedents. . ال تستخدم الضمائر الشخصية مباشرة بعد اسمهم السابق-24 Poor: Our friends they went to a museum. Better: Our friends went to a museum. 25. In compound constructions involving personal pronouns, there are two conditions where the word order is important: .ً في التراكيب المركبة التي تضم ضمائر شخصية توجد حالتان حيث أن الترتيب مهم جدا-25 a. where there is a personal pronoun and one or more other nouns (proper or common), place the personal pronoun last. . عندما يوجد ضمير شخصي و اسم أو أكثر من أسماء العلم ضع الضمير الشخصي في النهاية-أ Richard gave the books to Paul and him. The waiter and she argued over the check. The flat belongs to Sam and me. b. ;.;…………………………………. Ryreee where there are two or more personal pronoun and one of them is in the first person (singular or plural), the first person personal pronoun is usually placed last as a mark of courtesy. He and I are going to the cinema together. Rita read the paper to him and me. The dog barks at them and us. Reflexive Pronounsالضمائر االنعكاسية 26. Reflexive pronouns are compound forms of personal pronouns which are often used to refer back to the subject of a sentence. . الضمائر االنعكاسية هي أشكال مركبة من الضمائر الشخصية و التي تستخدم دائما ً لتشير إلى فاعل الجملة-26 The engineer burned himself. They may also be used ti give emphasis to someone or something mentioned. She herself repaired the computer. 27. Reflexives used with BY mean alone. . لتعني االستقالليةBY االنعكاسات تستخدم مع-27 He went by himself. (He went alone.) She repaired the computer by herself. (No one helped her.) 28. The only acceptable reflexive forms are: : األشكال االنعكاسية الوحيدة المقبولة هي-28 Myself ourself Yourself ourselves Himself yourselves Herself themselves Itself Forms such as theirself, meself, hisself, etc., are unacceptable. 29. Reflexives should never be used as the subject of a sentence or as part of a compound subject. . يجب أال تستخدم االنعكاسات كفاعل للجملة أو كجزء من الفاعل المركب-29 Poor: Juan and myself are writing a story. Better: Juan and I are writing a story. Relative Pronounsضمائر القرابة 30. Relative pronouns not only refer to antecedents but also introduce dependent clauses. The relative pronouns have specific uses: : ضمائر القرابة لها استخدامات خاصة. ال تشير ضمائر القرابة فقط إلى األسماء السابقة لكنها تبتدأ عبارات مستقلة-30 a. WHO (WHOM in the objective case) refers only to people. . في حالة النصب تشير فقط إلى األشخاصWHO (WHOM) -أ b. WHOSE (a possessive form of WHO) may refer to people or animals. .) يمكن أن تشير إلى األشخاص و الحيواناتWHO (حالة التملك لWHOSE -ب 4 c. WHICH refers to specific animals or things. . تشير إلى حيوانات معينة أو أشياءWHICH -ت d. THAT refers, in general, to people, animals, or things. . تشير بشكل عام إلى الناس و الحيوانات و األشياءTHAT -ث 31. Compound forms of the relative pronouns may be formed by adding—EVER or –SOEVER Such an addition adds the meaning of “any” or “no matter” but does not change the usage of the relative pronoun. no “ أوany”“ أضف معنى، كإضافةSOEVER أوEVER أشكال األمر للضمائر الشخصية يمكن أن تشكل بإضافة-31 . و لكن ال تغير استخدام ضمائر القرابةmatter" Please choose whoever raises his or her hand. (No matter who raises his or her hand, choose that person.) Answer whichever way you are directed.(No matter which way you are directed, answer.) Demonstrative Pronounsضمائر اإلشارة 32. Demonstrative pronouns (THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE) refer directly to their nouns. .( تشير مباشرة إلى أسمائهمTHIS,THAT,THESE,THOSE) ضمائر القرابة-32 This is my book. That is her hat. Agreement of Pronouns with Antecedents. 33. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and case. . يجب أن تتفق الضمائر مع سابقهم في العدد و الجنس و الحالة-33 The girl drive by her car. The boys drove by their cars. 34. Since collective nouns (see Aid 3) can be plural or singular depending on their usage, the pronouns referring to them must reflect the intended meaning. بما أن أسماء الجمع يمكن أن تكون مفردة و جمع و ذلك يعتمد على استخدامها فإن الضمائر التي تشير إليهم يجب أن تعكس-34 .المعنى المقصود The team lost its sixth game in a row. The team complained about their loose jerseys. 35. Two or more antecedents joined by a coordinating conjunction take a plural pronoun. . إذا ارتبط اثنان أو ثالثة من األسماء السابقة بحرف جر مناظر فإنهم يأخذون ضمير جمع-35 George and Ann rode their bikes. 36. When antecedents are joined by or or nor, there are three possibilities: : فإنه توجد ثالث احتماالتnor أوor عندما ترتبط األسماء السابقة ب-36 a. A singular pronoun is required if each antecedent is singular. . نحتاج إلى ضمير مفرد إذا كان كل اسم سابق مفرد-أ Neither Paula nor John mowed her lawn. b. A singular pronoun is required if the latter antecedent is singular. . نحتاج إلى ضمير مفرد إذا كان االسم السابق األخير مفرد-ب c. A plural pronoun is required if the latter antecedent is plural. . نحتاج إلى ضمير جمع إذا كان االسم السابق األخير جمع-ت Neither the coach nor the players know their salaries yet. التوافق بين الضمائر و األفعالAgreement of Pronouns with Verbs 37. The following pronouns are always are always singular in construction (requiring singular verbs): :) الضمائر التالية هي دائما ً مفردة في التركيب ( تحتاج إلى أفعال مفردة-37 Another everybody nobody Anybody everyone no one Anyone everything nothing Anything many a one somebody Each neither someone Either one something 38. The following pronouns are always plural in construction (requiring plural verbs): :) الضمائر التالية هي دائما ً جمع في التركيب (تحتاج إلى أفعال جمع-38 Both many few several 39. The following pronouns may be singular or plural in construction depending on their meaning: 5 . الضمائر التالية يمكن أن تكون مفردة في التركيب و ذلك يعتمد على معانيهم-39 All any none some Is there any who will teach him? Are there any of them here today? 40. Relative pronoun are singular or plural depending on their antecedents. . ضمائر القرابة هي دائما ً في حالة الجمع و ذلك يعتمد األسماء السابقة-40 The foreman is reprimanding the workers who always come late. He is pilot who flies for Eastern Airlines. Indefinite Pronounsالضمائر الغير محددة 41. Use the indefinite pronoun ONE to mean anyone or everyone or someone. . لنعني أي شخص أو كل شخص أو بعض األشخاصONE نستخدم الضمير الغير محدد-41 When one is happy, the world seems bright. - Use the personal pronoun YOU only when addressing a specific persons. Otherwise use ONE. . ONE عندما نخاطب أشخاص معينين و إال فاستخدمYOU نستخدم الضمير الشخصيPoor: You should take care of your body. (In appropriate unless addressing a specific person) Better: One should take care of one’s body. 42. Use SOME- (SOMEBODY, SOMETHING) in affirmative statements. . في التعابير اإليجابيةSOME (SOMEBODY,SOMETHING) نستخدم-42 There is something about her that makes me laugh. - Use ANY- (ANYONE, ANYBODY, SOMETHING) in negative sentences and in questions. . في الجمل المنفية و في السؤالANY (ANYONE,ANYBODY,SOMETHING) نستخدمHe didn’t take any money with him. Is there anyone here? VERBSاألفعال Three Types of Verbsهناك ثالثة أنواع لألفعال 43. A verb is a word which expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being. . الفعل هو كلمة تعبر عن فعل أو حدث أو حالة وجود-43 44. Verbs are classified according to their use as transitive, intransitive, or linking. . تصنف األفعال وفقا ً الستخداماتها إلى أفعال متعدية و أفعال الزمة وأفعال واصلة-44 a. Transitive verbs take direct objects to complete their meanings. األفعال المتعدية تأخذ مفعول به مباشر لتكمل المعنى-أ The hen laid an egg . ( The egg is the receiver of the action; it is a direct object.) b. Intransitive verbs do not take direct objects. The action of the verbs is not received directly by an object. . المفعول به ال يستقبل مباشرة عمل الفعل. األفعال الالزمة ال تأخذ مفعول به مباشر-ب My father lay down for a nap. - A test to see if a verb is transitive or intransitive is to ask the questions Who? Or What? If either question cannot be answered of the verb, then the verb is intransitive. In the example, notice one cannot answer the questions, My uncle lay who? Or my uncle lay what? عندها يكون.فإذا كان الجواب ال يجيب على سؤال الفعل. االختبار هو إذا ما كان الفعل المتعدي أو الالزم يسأل حول من أو ماذا. الحظ أنه في المثال ال نستطيع اإلجابة عن السؤال. الفعل الزم - Linking or copulative verbs are not action verbs. They may take predicate nouns or predicate adjectives (but never adverbs). Linking verbs may be any form of the verb TO BE ) فهم يمكن أن يأخذوا أسماء إسنادية أو صفات إسنادية (ولكن ال تأخذ ظروف، األفعال الرابطة ليست أفعال عملShe is a nurse. - They may be “sensing” verbs, such as FEEL, TASTE, LOOK, etc. . يمكن أن يكونوا أفعال حسيةShe looks pretty. He feels good. - They may also be “appearing” verbs such as SEEM, BECOME, REAMAIN, etc. . يمكن أن يكونوا أيضا أفعال ظهورHer grandfather remains ill. She seems great. صيغ األفعالThe Mood of Verbs 45. The indicative mood is factual. It states a fact or a question either positively or negatively. It is the most common mood. 6 ً إنها اكثر الصيغ شيوعا.ً حيث تقرر الحقيقة أو السؤال إما سلبا ً أو إيجابا، الصيغة الداللية هي صيغة حقيقية-45 46. The imperative mood is used for commands and wishes; it has but one tense, the present. . صيغة األمر تستخدم من أجل إعطاء األوامر و التمنيات و لها زمن واحد و هو الزمن الحاضر-46 Leave here soon! Please go. - The subject you, whether singular or plural, is understood but not expressed. The negative is formed with don’t. .. don’t أما النفي فيُشكل ب.( فيما إذا كان مفرد أو جمع و لكن ال يعبر عنهyou) يفهم الفاعلDon’t near the fire. 47. The subjunctive mood is used for order. Suppositions, contrary-to fact conditions, future possibilities, doubts, wishes, and necessities. The most common of these are country-to-fact conditions. The main idea f the subjunctive mood is expression of a hypothetical or contingent event. الصيغة الشرطية تستخدم لألمر و االفتراضات المناقضة للحاالت الحقيقية و اإلمكانيات المستقبلية و الشك و األمنيات و-47 الفكرة الرئيسية من الصيغة الشرطية هو التعبير عن. الصيغ الشرطية األكثر شيوعا ً هي التي تناقض الحاالت الحقيقية.الضروريات .حادثة افتراضية أو محتملة if she were older, we could take her with us. (contrary to fact) I wish she were old enough to go with us. (wish ) She acts as if she were older. (doubt ) 48. The subjunctive mood of most verbs is different from the indicative mood only in the third person singular. The S is dropped in the subjunctive. فيS حيث أننا نحذف، الصيغة الشرطية لمعظم األفعال مختلفة عن الصيغة الداللية فقط في حالة الشخص الثالث المفرد-48 .الصيغة الشرطية Indicative: He swims every day. Subjunctive: It is important that he swims every day. 49. The subjunctive mood of the verb TO BE uses BE in the present tense throughout, and WERE in the past tense throughout. ( في الزمن الماضي في كلWERE) ( في الزمن الحاضر في كل مكان وBE) ( تستخدمTO BE) الصيغة الشرطية للفعل-49 .مكان It is important that they be on their guard. She wish she was as graceful as her mother. 50. Subjunctive mood sentences that are conditional have two clauses, one independent and one dependent; the later begins with IF. -Note the following tense progressions in this type of construction: المتقدمI IF جمل الصيغة الشرطية التي هي شرطية لها عبارتين األولى مستقلة و األخر تابعة حيث أن األخيرة تبدأ ب-50 :هي هذا النوع من التركيب a. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the present tense, the main clause will be in the future tense. This is called a future-unreal condition. ( عبارة تابعة في الزمن الحاضر فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تكون في زمنIF) عندما تملك الجملة الشرطية التي تبدأ ب-أ .يدعى ذلك بحالة المستقبل الغير حقيقي.المستقبل If I hurry, I will be at school on time. If you follow the directions carefully, this cake will be delicious. b. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the past tense, the main clause will use WOULD, SHOULD, COULD, or MIGHT. This is called a present-unreal condition. عبارة تابعة في الزمن الماضي فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تستخدم IF عندما تملك الجمل الشرطية التي تبدأ ب-ب . ذلك يدعى بحالة الحاضر الغير حقيقيWOULD,SHOULD,COULD,MIGHT If I followed the directions carefully, this cake would be delicious. If he had the time, he’d take a vacation. I promised William I’d teach him. If my father were here, he could show you. c. When the if/conditional sentence has the dependent clause in the past perfect tense, the main clause will use WOULD HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, COULD HANE, or MIGHT HAVE. This is called a past-unreal condition. 7 بعبارة تابعة في الزمن الماضي التام فإن العبارة الرئيسية سوف تستخدم IF عندما تملك الجملة الشرطية التي تبدأ ب-ج . ذلك يدعى الماضي الغير حقيقي.WOULD HAVE,SHOULD HAVE,COULD HAVE,MIGHT HAVE If I had followed the directions carefully, this cake would have been delicious. If he had the time, he’d have taken a vacation. If my father had been here, he could have shown you. 51. When using the subjunctive mood to express a wish (suggesting a contrary-to-fact condition), use the past tense to suggest present action, and use the past perfect tense to suggest past action. عندما نستخدم الحال الشرطية لنعبر عن أمنية ( أو اقتراح مناف للشروط الحقيقية ) فإننا نستخدم الزمن الماضي القتراح فعل-51 . و نستخدم الزمن الماضي التام القتراح فعل ماضي، حاضر I wish my father were here now to show us. (present) I wish my father had been here yesterday. (past) 52. When a dependent clause is introduced by UNTIL, WHEN, BEFORE, AS SOON AS, AS LOMG AS, or WHILE, the clause takes the present tense to describe the future. فإن العبارة.UNTIL,WHEN,BEFORE,AS SOON AS, AS LONG WHILE عندما تبدأ العبارة التابعة ب-52 .تأخذ الزمن الحاضر لتعبر عن المستقبل We won’t go unless they asks us. They won’t leave as long as we are here. 53. The verbs SHOULD, OUGHT, and MUST express obligation. Only OUGHT may be followed by an infinitive. . ربما تتبعه صيغة المصدرOUGHT و الفعل. تعبر عن الواجبSHOULD,OUGHT,MUST األفعال-53 We ought to visit Grandma Julia this winter. You must repay that debt. 54. Do not shift mood in a sentence needlessly. . ال تغير الصيغة في الجملة إذا لم تكن بحاجة إلى ذلك-54 Poor: If I were you and was lost, I’d ask directions. Better: If I were you and were lost, I’d ask directions. The Voice of Verbsصيغ األفعال 55. The active voice shows that the subject of the sentence is the actor or doer of the action. . صيغة المعلوم تُظهر أن فاعل الجملة هو الذي قام بالفعل-55 George bought a new car. 56. The passive voice shows that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon. This voice is formed by using some part of the verb TO BE along with the past participle of the main verb. It is used to draw attention or give emphasis to the receiver of the action, to state generalizations, or to maintain an impersonal position. (TO BE)هذه الصيغة تتشكل باستعمال بعض أجزاء الفعل. صيغة المجهول تُظهر أن فاعل الجملة هو من وقع عليه الفعل-56 . إنه يُستخدم ليشير أو ليؤكد على مستقبل الفعل ليقر التعميم أو ليحافظ على حالة المجهول.مع الزمن الماضي التام للفعل الرئيسي The new car was bought by George. The noise was heard in all parts of our house. We regret to inform you that your application has been. -The passive voice can also used be to perform the function of a linking verb. . يمكن لصيغة المجهول أيضا ً أن تنجز عمل الفعل الرابطMarten Luther King was considered a considered a spiritual leader. 57. Do not shift voice in the same sentence. . ال تغير صيغة الفعل في نفس الجملة-57 Poor: She gave me pay and I was told where to go. Better: She paid me and told me where to go. أزمنة األفعالThe Tense of Verbs 58. TENSE means time. Time and its relationship to events is established by the use of the correct tense of the verb in a sentence. .يُعين الوقت و عالقته باألحداث باستعمال الزمن الصحي للفعل في الجملة. الزمن يعني الوقت-58 59. The principal parts of a verb are necessary items in order to know how to form the various tenses. If a verb is regular, the present form is the same as the infinitive (for example, to walk: they 8 walk), the past form is made by adding ING to the present form, and the past participle form is the same as the past form. There are many irregular verbs which form their principal parts in an irregular manner. The following is a selected list of some regular and some irregular verbs and their principal parts. Whenever you come across a new verb, be sure to memorize its principal parts. إذا كان الفعل نظامي فإن الشكل الحاضر. األقسام الرئيسية لألفعال هي عناصر مهمة لمعرفة كيفية تشكيل األزمنة المتنوعة-59 أما شكل الماضي التام فهي نفسها، إلى الشكل الحاضرIING أما الشكل الماضي فيكون بإضافة، هو نفسه في حالة المصدر . يوجد العديد من األفعال الشاذة و التي تشكل أجزائها الرئيسية بطريقة غير نظامية.كشكل الماضي أينما تمر بفعل جديد كن أكيداً أن.القائمة التالية هي بعض األشكال ال ُمنتقاة لبعض األفعال النظامية و الشاذة و أقسامهم الرئيسية .تحفظ أقسامه الرئيسية Present past progressive past participle Walk walked walking walked Sing sang singing sung Do did doing done Go went going gone Have had having had Grow grew growing grown Speak spoke speaking spoken Hear heard hearing heard Cut cut cutting cut Write wrote writing written Come came coming come Begin began beginning begun CONJUGTIONالتزامن 60. TE TENSES ARE ILLUSTRATED IN TE FOLLOWING CONJUGATIONS OF TWO VERBS, TO SEE AND TO BE ** Conjugation of the Verb To See PRINCIPAL PARTS TO BE وTO SEE األزمنة موضحة في التزامن التالي للفعلين-60 األقسام الرئيسيةTO See تزامن الفعل IFINITIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE see seeing saw seen Indicative Mood ACTIVE VOICCE SINGULAR PLURAL Present tense I see You see He sees We see You see they see Present Progressive Tense I am seeing, etc. Past Tense I saw You saw He saw we saw you saw they saw Past Progressive Tense PASSIVE NOICE SINGULAR I am seen You are seen she is seen PLURAL We are seen You are seen they are seen I am being seen, I was seen you were seen she was seen we were seen you were seen they were seen I was seeing, etc. I was being seen, etc. Future Tense I shall see we shall see I shall be seen we shall be seen You will see you will see you will be seen you will be seen He will see they will see they will be seen they will be seen Future Progressive Tense I shall be seeing, etc. (none) 9 Present Perfect Tense I have seen we have seen I have been seen we have been seen You have seen you have seen you have been seen they have been seen She has seen we have seen you have been seen you have been seen Present Perfect progressive Tense I have been seeing, etc. (none) Past Perfect Tense I had seen we had seen I had seen we had been seen You had seen you had seen you had been seen you had been seen He had seen they had seen she had been seen they had been seen Past Perfect progressive Tense I had been seeing, etc. (none) Future Perfect Tense I shall have seen we shall have seen I shall been seen we shall been seen You will have seen you will have seen you will have been seen we will have been seen He will have seen they will have seen they will have been seen they will have been seen Future Perfect progressive Tense I will have been seeing, etc. (none) Subjunctive Mood ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL Present tense I see we see You see you see He see they see Past Tense I saw we saw You saw you saw He saw they saw PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL I be seen you be see she be seen we be seen you be seen they be seen I were seen you were seen she were seen we were seen you were seen they were seen Imperative Mood ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL Present Tense (You) see (you) see PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL (you) be seen (you) be seen Verbals ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE Infinitives Present: to see Perfect: to have seen to be seen to have been seen Gerunds Present: seeing Perfect: having seen being seen having been seen Participles Present: seeing Past: seen Perfect: having seen being seen (none) having been seen ** Conjugation of the Verb To Be Infinitive Be PRINCIPAL PART Present Participle Past being was past Participle been 10 Indicative Mood ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL Present Tense I am we were You are you are He is they are Present Progressive Tense I am being, etc. Future Tense I shall be we shall be You will be you will be He will be they will be Future Progressive Tense I will be being, etc. Past Perfect Tense I had been we had been You had been you had been He had been they had been SINGULAR PLURAL Past Tense I was we were you were you were she was they were Past Progressive Tense I was being etc. Present Perfect Tense I have been we have been you have been you have been she has been they have been Future Perfect Tense I shall have been we shall have been you will have been you will have been she will have been they will have been Subjunctive Mood ACTIVE VOICE Present Tense Past Tense I be, etc. I were, etc. Future Tense Present Perfect Tense I should be, etc. I have been, etc. Past Perfect Tense I had been, etc. Imperative Mood ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR PLURAL Present Tense: (you) be (you) be FORMATION AND USE OF VERB TENSES تشكيل و استعمال أزمنة األفعال 61. The present tense is used to express: : الزمن الحاضر يستعمل للتعبير عن-61 1.The present time الوقت الحاضر-1 I hear you. We need food. a. A general truth. .حقيقة عامة The earth revolves around the sun. b. The historical present. زمن حاضر تاريخي Kennedy ranks as a great president. c. The future.المستقبل We leave for Boston on Friday. 62. The present continuous tense is used to express an action that is going on at the present moment, or to express a future action. . الزمن الحاضر المستمر يستعمل للتعبير عن القيام بالفعل في اللحظة أو للتعبير عن فعل مستقبلي-62 You are reading. I am leaving for Rome tomorrow. 63. The past tense is used to express an action that ended sometime in the past. . الزمن الماضي يستخدم للتعبير عن فعل انتهى في وقت ما في الماضي-63 I got up this and ate breakfast. 11 64. The past continuous tense express a past action which was going on When another action took place. It used in conjunction with the past tense. .الزمن الماضي المستمر يعبر عن فعل ماضي كان قائما ً عندما حدوث فعل آخر حيث أنه يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن الماضي-64 I was typing when you called last night. 65. The future tense express an action which has not yet happened. . الزمن المستقبل يعبر عن فعل لم يحدث بعد-65 a. One way to express the future is to WILL plus the simple Form of the verb. WILL is often contracted with a personal Pronoun. ً دائماWILL باإلضافة للشكل البسيط للفعل حيث أننا نختصرWILL أول طريقة الوحيدة للتعبير عن المستقبل هي استخدام-أ .مع الضمير الشخصي She’ll (she will) leave for Miami on Thursday. b. Another way to express the future is to use GOING TO plus the Simple from of the verb. . باإلضافة للشكل البسيط للفعلGOING TO الطريق األخر للتعبير عن المستقبل هي استخدام-ب HE’s going to leave for Houston on Monday. c. The past tense of TO BE GOING TO (WAS GOING TO, WERE GOING TO) is used to express an action which was planned or Intended but which did not happen. يستخدم للتعبير عن فعلTO BE GOING TO(WAS GOING TO,WERE GOING TO) الزمن الماضي للفعل-ت .ُخطط له أو قُصد و لكنه لم يحصل I was going to call you, but I forget. 66. The future continuous tense expresses an action that will be going on when another action takes place. . زمن المستقبل المستمر يعبر عن فعل سوف يحدث عند حدوث فعل آخر-66 At this time next year, he’ll be studying at Cornell University. 67. The present perfect tense (HAVE or HAS plus the past participle)is used to express: :( باإلضافة لصيغة الماضي التام يستخدم للتعبير عنHAVE,HAS) الزمن الحاضر التام-67 a. An action that happened at some indefinite time in the past. .فعل حدث في وقت غير محدد في الماضيSusan has learned many new words. b. An action which started in the past and is continuing into the Present. .فعل حدث في الماضي و استمر في الوقت الحاضرMy father has worked hard all her life. c. An action that was repeated several times prior to the present. .فعل ُكرر عدة مرات قبل الوقت الحاضرRichard has seen that movie five times. d. Exact times are not mentioned in this tense; if a specific time is Mentioned for an action, the past tense is used. .ال نذكر أوقات محددة في هذا الزمن فإن ُحدد وقت معين لهذا الفعل نستعمل الزمن الماضيCathy had read this book. Cathy read this book yesterday 68. The present perfect continuous tense express an action that began in the past and has continued up to the present. It can often be interchanged with the present perfect tense. .الزمن الحاضر التام المستمر يعبر عن فعل بدأ في الماضي و انتهى في الحاضر و نستطيع دائما ً أن نبدله بالزمن الحاضر التام-68 Mike has been doing very little work recently. 69. The past perfect tense expresses an action completed prior to some past event. It is used in conjunction with the past tense. . الزمن الماضي التام يعبر عن فعل تم قبل فعل ما حدث في الماضي حيث يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن الماضي-69 I had already eaten when you called last night. 70. The future perfect tense expresses a future action to be completed before some future time. It is used in conjunction with the future tense. زمن المستقبل التام يعبر عن فعل مستقبلي سوف يكمل قبل وقت معين في المستقبل حيث أنه يستخدم بتزامن مع الزمن-70 .المستقبلي 12 I shall have eaten by the time you will arrive. Do not shift tense. Consistency is important in sentence structure. . ال تغير الزمن ألن االتساق هام في تركيب الجملة-71 Poor: when she arrives home at night I’ll be asleep. Better: When she arrives home at night I am asleep. 72. Take care not to confuse the perfect tense with the past tense. . كن حذرا ً أال تربك الزمن التام بالزمن الماضي-72 Poor: Did Carmen return your pen yet? Better: Has Carmen returned your pen yet? (The action of returning the pen may have taken place at any time since it was borrowed. An indefinite past action requires the present perfect tense.) 71. Auxiliary Verbsاألفعال المساعدة 73. There are many auxiliary or helping verbs which are used with main verbs to show tense, mood, and voice. Some of the most common auxiliary verbs are: هذه بعض األفعال.يوجد العديد من األفعال المساعدة و التي تستخدم مع األفعال الرئيسية لتُري الزمن و الحالة و الصيغة-73 : المساعدة الشائعة be have shall will may might can must ought should would could do need let dare - Some of these auxiliary verbs can be used together to help the Main verb. . بعض من هذه األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن تستخدم مع بعضها لتساعد الفعل الرئيسيI should have called you last week. He must be going to California immediately. 74. Never use an auxiliary verb with the past tense form of the main verb. . ال تستخدم الفعل المساعد مع الزمن الماضي للفعل الرئيسي-74 Poor: I had began the exercise. Better: I had begun the exercise. 75. The past participle form of the verb is always used with an auxiliary verb. It may never be used alone as a verb. .يستخدم شكل الماضي التام للفعل دائما ً فعل مساعد حيث أنه ال يستخدم لوحده كفعل-75 Poor: I drunk the water. Better: I had drunk the water. 76. From negatives by placing NOT after the auxiliary verb. . بعد الفعل الرئيسيNOT لتشكيل النفي بوضع-76 Peter has not eaten dinner. You may not enter now. One must not drive over fifty-five mikes hour. He should not smoke. AUXILIARY VERBS FOR USE WITH THE SUBJUNCTIIýVE MOOD استخدام األفعال المساعدة مع الصيغة الشرطية 77. Use May, CAN,SHALL, or WILL if the governing verb is in the present tense. . إذا كان الفعل المسيطر في الزمن الحاضرMAY,SHALL,WILL استخدم-77 My boss tells me that I may get a 7 percent raise in pay. Suzanne thinks that she will pass the exam. Use MIGHT, COULD, SHOULD, or WOULD if the governing verb is in The past tense. . إذا كان الفعل المسيطر في الزمن الماضيMIGHT,SHOULD,WOULD استخدمMy boss told me that I might get a 7 percent raise in pay. Emily thought that she would pass the exam. 78. Use SHOULD to express general obligation, expectation, or condition. We should have known better. . للتعبير عن واجب عام أو توقع أو حالة يجب أن نعرفها بشكل أفضلSHOULD استخدم-78 If you should see Jay, tell him to meet us. The train should have been here by now. 13 79. Use WOULD to express habitual or customary action or possibility. . للتعبير عن فعل اعتيادي أو إمكانيةWOULD استخدم-79 Every year on October 31,he would start to visit his parents. If I didn’t have to work tonight I would go with you. 80. Use MUST, OUGHT TO, SHOULD or HAVE TO to express necessity or strong obligation. . للتعبير عن ضرورة أو واجب قويMIGHT,OUGHT TO, SHOULD, HAVE TO استخدم-80 We must finish this by tomorrow. You ought to slow down on this road. Suzann should lose some weight. 81. The past tense forms of SHOULD and OUGHT TO are formed by using the auxiliary verb, plus HAVE, plus the past participle of the main verb. و الزمنHAVE تُشكل باستخدام أفعال مساعدة باإلضافة لSHOULD, OUGHT TO أشكال الزمن الماضي لألفعال-81 .الماضي التام للفعل الرئيسي You should have listened more carefully. Lynn ought to have work by now. 82. Of the four auxiliary verbs listed in Aid 80 which show necessity, etc., only HAVE TO has a past, future, and present perfect tense form. فقط يمكن أن يكونHAVE TO الفعل.. و التي تُري الضرورة الخ80 بالنسبة لألفعال المساعدة الموجودة في المساعدات-82 .في الزمن الماضي و المستقبل و الزمن الحاضر التام We had to slow down on this road last night. You will have to slow down on this road tonight. She has had to slow down on road many times. 83. CAN and MAY should not be used interchangeably. Use MAY to show permission or to indicate possible future action. Use CAN to show ability. للتعبير عن السماح بشيء ما أو لإلشارة عن فعل مستقبليMAY استعمل. ال يمكن أن تتبادل فيما بينهاCAN,MAY -83 . للتعبير عن المقدرةCAN استخدم. ممكن He may enter the testing room now. You may go to the zoo tomorrow. You can do it; I know you can. SOME TWO-WORD AUXILIARY VERBS بعض األفعال المساعدة التي تتكون من كلمتين 84. SUPPOSED TO, expressing obligation or expectation, has a present and a past tense form. . تعبر عن الفرض أو التوقعات و تأخذ شكل الزمن الحاضر و الماضيSUPPOSED TO-84 The boys are supposed to be here now. The boys were supposed to be here an hour ago. 85. USED TO describes an action that happened over a period of time in the past, but no longer happens. . تصف فعل حدث في فترة من الوقت في الماضي و لكنها لم تعد تحدثUSED TO-85 My husband and I used to smoke, but we quit. Lucy used to serve as their official interpreter. 86. WOULD RATHER is followed by the simple form of the verb. The phrase means TO PREFER and is usually contracted ‘D RATHER. تُتبع بالشكل البسيط للفعل حيث أن هذه العبارة تعني التفضيل و االختصار عادة يكون كالتاليWOULD RATHER-86 .'D RATHER I’d rather go to a play than see a movie. Would you rather live in NEW YOURK or in Chicago? 87. HAD BETTER, indicating advisability of an action, is followed by the simple form of the main verb. . استحسان الفعل و يتبعها دائما ً الشكل البسيط للفعل الرئيسيHAD BETTER-87 He had better not see her anymore. You’d better notify the hospital of her illness. AUXILIARY VERBS IN TAG ENDINGS نهايات األفعال المساعدة 88. Tag endings ask questions or invite confirmation of some already- know fact. 14 Always use a negative tag ending after an affirmative statement. Always use a positive tag ending after a negative statement. و استخدم،استخدم دائما ً النهاية التي تدل على النفي بعد التعبير اإليجابي.النهايات تسأل أو تدعو للتأكيد على حقيقة معروفة للتو-88 .دائما ً النهاية التي تدل على اإليجاب بعد التعبير المنفي They haven’t paid you yet, have they? She can drive a car, can’t she? They gave you what you wanted, didn’t they? MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON AUXILIARY VERBS مالحظات متنوعة حول األفعال المساعدة 89. Some auxiliary verbs may also be used as main verbs. .بعض األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن تستخدم أيضا ً كأفعال رئيسية-89 You need not go. (auxiliary) We all need love. ( main) The team has a new coach. (main) He has lived here all his life. (auxiliary) Pam always does her homework. (main) She doesn’t want our help. (auxiliary) 90- Auxiliary verbs are useful in helping to avoid repetition, such as in these situation. األفعال المساعدة تفيد في المساعدة على تجنب التكرار كما في هذه الحالة-90 a. In sentences that express opposite situation, repetition may be avoided by using BUT and an auxiliary verb alone. .و الفعل المساعد فقط BUT في الجمل التي تعبر عن حالة مناقضة فإننا يمكن أن نتجنب التكرار باستعمال-أ Poor: Peter has eaten dinner, but Catherine hasn’t eaten dinner. Better: Emma doesn’t have holiday tomorrow, but I do. Maher can’t speak Spanish, but samara can. The police think that Evan stole the car, but he says he didn’t. b. Repetition of the auxiliary verbs may be omitted if several auxiliary verbs in a sentence are in the same form and the actions of their main verbs are related. تكرار األفعال المساعدة يمكن أن يحذف إذا كانت األفعال المتبقية في الجملة في نفس الشكل و أعمال األفعال الرئيسية-ب .مسرودة Poor: Sharon will read the story and will finish it. Better: Sharon will read the story and finish it. c. Repletion may be avoided by using TOO or SO with an auxiliary verb. . مع الفعل المساعدSO أوTOO يمكن تجنب التكرار باستخدام-ت Poor:I wen to school in Ann Arbor and Lucy went to school in Ann Arbor. Better: I want to school in Ann and so did Lucy. Poor: Barbara practices yoga and her husband practices yoga. Better: Barbara practices yoga and her husband does too. CAUSATIVE AUXILARIESاألفعال المساعدة السببية 91. Causative structures are used to show that someone caused the performance of some action. The past participle form of the verb is used along with HAVE or GET. When the mood is subjunctive, use the present tense. GETوHAVE الماضي التام للفعل يستخدم مع. التراكيب السببية تستخدم لتُري أن شخص ما سبب إنجاز بعض األعمال-91 .عندما تكون الصيغة شرطية نستخدم الزمن الحاضر. Did you have your oil checked at the gas station? Pam has her hair done once a week. Sonia got her shoes resoled last week. If the gardener comes today, have him plant the rosebush. 15 VERBALS األسماء الفعلية 92. Verbals are forms of verbs, but not verbs themselves. Gerunds, infinitives, and participles are verbals. و المصادر و أسماءING األسماء الفعلية هي أشكال لألفعال و لكنها ليست األفعال نفسها و هي المصادر التي تنتهي ب-92 .المفعول 93. Avoid splitting infinitives. التي تدل عن المصدر عن فعلهاTO تجنب فصل-93 Poor: They asked us to quickly prepare ourselves. Better: They asked us to prepare ourselves quickly. - It is acceptable to omit TO in an infinitive when the infinitive is preceded by certain verbs. . من المصدر عندما يسبقه أفعال معينةTO من المقبول حذف I didn’t want to do it; they made me do it. 94. Take care not to let a participle dangle, that is, hang loosely in a sentence without a clearly defined noun to modify. . كن حذر أال تدع اسم المفعول متبوع يعلق في الجملة برخاوة بدون أن يحدد اسم لتعديله بشكل واض-94 Poor: Jumping to the ground, my keys fell out. Better: Jumping to the ground, I lost my keys. (It was I who jumped to the ground, not the keys. The participle must modify I.) ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBSالصفات و الظروف 95. Many adjectives become adverbs by adding LY. .LY معظم الصفات تصب ظروف بإضافة-95 Soft softly beautiful beautifully 96. Some words may be used as adjectives or adverbs with no change in form. .يمكن لبعض الكلمات أن تستعمل كصفات أو كظروف بدون أي تغيير في الشكل-96 Fast hard low late 97. Do not confuse adjective phrases with adverbial phrases. .ال تربك أشباه الجمل التي تعبر عن الصفات بأشباه الجمل التي تعبر عن الظروف-97 She was absent because she was ill. Her absence was due to her illness. The first sentence above is an adverbial phrase. The second sentence above is an adjective phrase. .الجملة األولى في األعلى هي شبه جملة ظرفية أما الجملة الثانية فهي شبه جملة تعبر عن الصفة 98. FARTHER refers to a greater distance in space. FARTHER refers to a greater degree, extent, or quantity. . تشير إلى مسافة كبيرة و إلى درجة كبيرة أو امتداد أو كميةFARTHER-98 Damascus is farther than I thought. If you need further information, please ask. 99. Do not use two negative adverbs or adjective in the same construction. . ال تستخدم ظرفين أو صفتين منفيتين في نفس التركيب-99 Poor: He doesn’t have no money. Better: He has no money. Better: He doesn’t have any money. -It is acceptable, however, to use a construction such as NOT UNFAMILIAR to mean familiar. . لتعني أن الشيء مألوفNOT UNFAMILIARإنه من المقبول أن تستخدم تركيب ك100. WHEN and WHERE are usually adverbs, and as such may not introduce noun clauses. . هم عادة ظروف لهذا فهم ال يبتدئون العبارة االسميةWHERE وWHEN -100 Poor: Oxford is the university where we are going. Better: Oxford is the university that we are attending. PLACING ADVERBSتوضع الظروف 101. Place adverbs as near as possible to the verb, adjective, other adverb, etc., which they modify in order to avoid confusion. Take particular care with ALMOST, EVER, EVEN, JUST, HARDLY, NOT and ONLY. 16 ضع الظروف قريبة من الفعل و الصفة و الظروف األخر بقدر اإلمكان و التي يحددوها لتجنب اإلرباك كن حذراً بشكل-101 ALMOST,EVER,EVEN,JUST,HARDLY,NOT,ONLY خاص مع Only she said loved him. She only said she loved him. She said only she loved him. She said she only loved him. She said she loved only him. 102. Place adverbs of time at the beginning of a sentence or at the end. .ظروف الزمان تكون في بداية الجملة أو في نهايتها-102 Yesterday we saw our first baseball game. I’m flying to Britain tomorrow. 103. Please adverbs of frequency before the main verb, unless it is the verb TO BE. .ظروف التكرار تكون قبل الفعل الرئيسي و لكن قبل فعل الكون-103 Ellen has never sailed a boat. July seldom complains. Nina is often late for class. 104. Adverbs should not separate verbs from their direct objects. .يجب أال تفرق الظروف األفعال من المفعول به المباشر الذي يتبعهم-104 Poor: I will meet today the boss. Better: I will meet the boss today. PLACING ADJECTIVESتوضع الصفات 105. Adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify. .الصفات عادة تسبق األسماء التي تصفها-105 A bright sky a pretty dress - The may, however, follow their nouns for special purposes. .يمكن لهم أن يسبقوا أسماءهم ألهداف معينةAll thing bright and beautiful reasons unknown 106. When several adjectives modify one noun, adjectives of color are usually placed directly before the noun. .ً عندما تصف عدة صفات اسم واحد فإن صفات اللون عادة توضع قبل االسم تماما-106 the old gray mare the Smiths’ expensive, new, red couch THE COMPARATIVE DEGREصيغة المقارنة 107. The comparative degree of most short adverbs and adjectives is formed by adding ER. . ER صيغة المقارنة لمعظم الظروف و الصفات القصيرة تتشكل بإضافة-107 Smart smarter easy easier Dark darker late later 108.The comparative degree of most adverbs and adjectives of more than one or two syllables is formed by using MORE. صيغة المقارنة لمعظم الظروف و الصفات التي تكون مكونة من أكثر من مقطع أو اثنين من المقاطع اللفظية تتشكل-108 MORE باستخدام Difficult more difficult often more often Valuable more valuable Frequently more frequently 109-Never use both the ER from and the MORE from with the same word. . في نفس الكلمةMORE و صيغة الـER ال تستخدم أبدا ً صيغة الـ-109 Poor: Smith was more quieter than his sister. Better: Smith was quieter than his sister. 110. The comparative degree of all adverbs and adjectives is followed by THAN. .THAN صيغة المقارنة للظروف و الصفات تتبع ب-110 They are wiser than their parents. 17 That restaurant is more expensive than this one. She arrived more quickly than I expected. Guy works harder than his brother. THE SUPERLATVE DEGREEصيغة التفضيل 111. The superlative degree of adverbs and adjectives is used to express comparison among three or more persons, things, etc. The superlative degree of most short adverbs and adjectives is formed by adding EST. . صيغة التفضيل للظروف و الصفات تستخدم للتعبير عن مقارنة بين ثالثة أو أكثر من األسماء أو األشياء-111 EST صيغة التفضيل لمعظم الظروف و الصفات القصيرة تتشكل بإضافة Smart smartest easy easiest Dark darkest late latest 112. The superlative degree of most adverbs and adjectives of more than one or two syllables is formed by using MOST. . MOST صيغة التفضيل لمعظم الظروف و الصفات و التي تتكون من أكثر من مقطع أو اثنين تتشكل باستخدام-112 Difficult most difficult Valuable most valuable Frequentlymost frequently 113. Never use both the EST and the MOST form with the same word. . في نفس الكلمةEST,MOST ال تستخدم كل من-113 Poor: That was the most unkindest remark of all. Better: That was the unkindest remark of all. 114. The superlative degree of all adverbs and adjectives is preceded by THE. . THE يسبق صيغة التفضيل لكل الظروف و الصفات-114 Leland is the most clever man in the company. He is the cleverest. Jane sings the most softly of all the members of the choir. MISCELLANEOUS RULES OF COMPARISONأحكام متنوعة للمقارنة 115. When comparing members of a group, don’t compare something to itself. Use ELSE or OTHER in the comparative degree. في درجة المقارنةOTHER أو ELSE عندما تقارن أعضاء مجموعة ال تقارن شيء ما بنفسه و استخدم-115 Jim’s car was faster than any other in the race. Anne is heavier than anyone else in the class. -Use ALL in the superlative degree. . في صيغة التفضيلALL استخدمHis is the fastest of all the cars. She is the heaviest of all the class. 116- Do not compare adverbs or adjectives which, by their definition, are absolute. Here are some examples: . ال تقارن الظروف و الصفات و التي يكونون بتعريفهم مطلقون و هذه بعض األمثلة-116 absolute final ultimate sole first unanimous total last unique eternal primary only 117. Remember these two spelling hints when forming comparatives and Superlatives: . تذكر هاتين المساعدتين للتهجئة عندما نشكل صيغة المقارنة والتفضيل-117 118. When a short word ends in a consonant which is preceded by a vowel. The last consonant is doubled before adding ER or EST. ST أوER عندما تنتهي كلمة قصيرة بحرف ساكن مسبوق بحرف صوتي فإن الحرف الساكن األخير يضاعف قبل إضافة-118 Big bigger biggest Hot hotter hottest Sad sadder saddest 18 When a word ends in a Y which is preceded by a consonant, change the Y to I before adding ER or EST. EST أوER قبل إضافةI إلىYو التي تكون مسبوقة بحرف ساكن تتغيرY عندما تنتهي كلمة ب Easy easier easiest Dusty dustier dustiest Special forms for five adjectives:: أشكال خاصة لخمسة صفات Positive Comparative Superlative Good better best Bad worse worst Little littler , less littlest, least Many, much more most Far farther, further farthest, furthest Special forms for five adverbs: Well better best Badly worse worst Little less least Much more most Far farther, further farthest, furthest 119.THERE, HERE and IT when used as expletives, help to provide emphasis or smoothness in sentences. An expletive is never the subject of a sentence. Look for the subject to find out which verb to use. . الكالم الحشو هو ليس فاعل الجملة. كحشو تساعد في التأكيد و التمهيد في الجملةTHERE,HERE,IT عندما تستخدم-119 .ابحث عن الفاعل لتجد أي فعل ستستخدم Singular: There is a fly in the room. (FLY is the subject.) It is I at your door. (I is the subject.) Plural: There are forty students in my class. (STUDENTS is the subject) Here come my friends, the Mayfields. (FRINDS is the subject) APPOSITIVESالبدل 120.Wen pronouns are in apposition, they must agree with the nouns or pronouns they name in number, gender, and case. . عندما تكون الضمائر بدل عن االسم يجب أن تطابق األسماء أو الضمائر التي تسميها في العدد و الجنس و الحالة-120 Poor: The director has asked for two volunteers, you and I Better: The director has asked for two volunteers, you and me (The object of the verb ASKED is VOLUNTEERS. The words in apposition to VOLUNTEERS must therefore also be in the objective case.) Poor: Us girls are going out shopping now. Better: WE girls are going out shopping now. -(GIRLS Is the subject of the sentence, so the pronoun in apposition must also be in the subjective case.) PREPOSITIONS أحرف الجر 121.-Since prepositions require objects, be sure that all pronouns that are object of prepositions are in the objective case. . بما أن أحرف الجر تحتاج إلى مفعول به كن أكيدا ً أن كل الضمائر التي هي مفعول به ألحرف الجر تكون في حالة المفعولية-121 Poor: Henry was asked to choose between Jack and I. Better: Henry was asked to choose between Jack and me. 122.-Take care not to use or repeat prepositions needlessly. . كن حذرا َ أن ال تستخدم أو تكرر أحرف الجر دون الحاجة لذلك-122 Poor: Of what are you afraid of? Better: Of what are you afraid? Better: what are you afraid of? 19 Poor: She wandered off of the track. Better: She wandered off the track. Preposition Usageاستخدام أحرف الجر 123-DIFFER FROM means to be dissimilar.DIFFER WITH mean to disagree. . يعني عدم التوافقDIFFER WITH . يعني التباينDIFFER FROM-123 Your car differs from mine. Fred differs with me on this matter. 124. -DIFFERENT FROM is the correct phrase, meaning to be unlike. Never use DIFFERENT THAN. DIFFERENT ال تستخدم. هي شبه جملة صحيحة و التي تعني أن تكون غير مشابهDIFFEREN FROM -124 .THAN Poor: Life here is no different than life anywhere else. Better: Life here is no different from life anywhere else. 125.-AMONG is used to compare three or more items. . لمقارنة ثالثة أو أكثر من الموادAMONG تستخدم-125 Let’s keep the news secret among just the four of us. BETWEEN is used to compare two items. . للمقارنة بين مادتينBETWEEN تستخدمNothing has ever come between her husband and her. 126-DESPITE and IN SPITE of may be used interchangeably when followed by a noun. . أن تستخدم بشكل متبادل عندما يتبعها اسمIN وDESPITE يمكن لـ-126 Despite his age, he worked as hard as his grandson. In spite of the fact that we lost, we were in good spirits. 127.-FOR shows the length of time of an action. . تعني اإلطالة في وقت الفعلFOR-127 Betsy as worked here for four months. SINCE shows the time the action began. . تعني أن وقت الفعل قد بدأSINCE Betsy as worked here since March. 128.Try to avoid the use of up with a verb. OPEN up is not as good as OPEN; DIVIDING something is better than DDIVIDING up something; it would be better to DRINK a liquid rather than to DRINK UP a liquid. When UP is used as part of a separable two-word verb, keep the two parts as close as possible. DIVIDING أفضل منDIVIDING .OPEN ليست جيدة مثلOPEN UP مع الفعلUP حاول أن تتجنب استخدام-128 يجب استخدام القسمين، كجزء من فعل مفصول إلى كلمتينUP عندما تستخدمK UPDRINH هي افضل منDRINK .UP .بشكل متقارب بقدر اإلمكان Did you tear up her letter? Did you tear it up? 129-There are many special uses of certain prepositions. They must be learned. Note each idiomatic use of a preposition when you hear or read it. The following list presents some of the most common special uses: الحظ االستخدام االصطالحي لحرف الجر عندما تسمعه أو. هناك استخدامات خاصة ألحرف جر معينة يجب أن تعلمها-129 . القائمة التالية تقدم بعض أكثر االستخدامات الخاصة الشائعة. تقرأه a. b. c. d. A person travels on a plane, train, or bus , but in a car or taxi. One gets angry at people, but with things. When speaking about an address: One lives at a specific address: One lives at a specific street: One lives at specificity: When speaking about someone’s birth: A person is born at a specific time: at 3:39 P.M 20 A person is born at a specific date: on August 7, 1966 A person is born at a specific day: on Sunday A person is born at a specific city: in Lima, Peru The person in the example above is ever after said to be from Lima. CONJUNCTIONS أحرف العطف 130-Subordinate conjunctions join dependent clauses to main or independent clauses. When the dependent clause comes first in a sentence, it is usually followed by a comma. These are the most common subordinate conjunctions: عندما تأتي العبارة التابعة أوالً في الجملة فإنها عادة تُتبع. أحرف العطف الثانوية تصل بين عبارات تابعة بعبارات مستقلة-130 . هذه معظم أحرف العطف الشائعة. بفاصلة After before since until Although even though that when As if that where As if in order that though whether Because lest unless while 131.-Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect items of equal rank. These are the most common coordinate conjunctions: .ً و هذه أكثر هذه األحرف شيوعا. أحرف العطف النظيرة تستخدم لتربط بين مفردات متساوية في الدرجة-131 And but or Yet for nor 132-Correlative conjunctions are used to connect items of the same kind; they are used in pairs. Do not confuse or mix up these pairs; they must be used as listed. ال تربك أو تخلط. تستخدم أحرف العطف المترابطة لتربط المفردات التي تكون من نفس النوع و هم يُستعملون بشكل ثنائي-132 .هذه الثنائيات فهم يجب أن يُستعملوا كالتالي Either . . . or nether . . . nor Both . . . and not only . . . but also As . . . as so . . . as Gibson is tall as his uncle. The meal was not only good, but also cheap. EITHER . . . OR and NEITHER . . . NOR may only be used to correlate two elements. If more than two elements are involved, a correlative conjunction is inappropriate. فإذا كان يوجد أكثر من عنصرين. يمكن أن تستخدم فقط لتربط عنصران اثنانEITHER…OR, NEITHER…NOR .مرتبطين فإن حرف العطف الرابط يكون غير مالئم Poor: Neither Yale, Rosy, nor Magi will accompany you. Better: You will not be accompanied by Yale, by Rosy, or by Magi. 133-Take car in using coordinate or correlative conjunctions when the items joined are of equal rank or similar form. . كن حذرا ً في استخدام أحرف العطف النظيرة و الرابطة عندما تكون المفردات المرتبطة من نفس المرتبة أو من نفس الشكل-133 Poor: She both gave me money and food. Better: Se gave me both money and food. (The first sentence is poor because BOTH . . . AND joins a verb and a noun.) 134.-Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs which are used as conjunctions for the purpose of joining two or more main or independent clauses. They are usually preceded by a semicolon. These are some of the most common conjunctive adverbs: وهذه. الظروف الرابطة هي الظروف التي تستخدم كروابط م أجل الربط بين اثنتين أو أكثر من العبارات الرئيسية المستقلة-134 :ًو هذه بعض الظروف الرابطة األكثر شيوعا.الظروف تكون متبوعة دائما ً بفاصلة منقوطة Accordingly for example or else therefore Also owever1 otherwise thus Besides nevertheless still yet 135. The following words are not conjunctions. They may not be used to introduce a clause. 21 . الكلمات التالية هي ليست أحرف عطف و لكنها تستخدم للبدء بالعبارة-135 Except (a preposition or a verb) Without (a preposition) Like (a preposition or a verb) Poor: John insisted that his daughter write like he does. Better: John insisted that his daughter write as he does. ARTICLESأدوات التعريف أو التنكير 136.A and AN are the indefinite articles. They are used only with singular nouns that have not been specifically identified. . هما أداتي تنكير وهما تستخدمان فقط مع األسماء المفردة و التي ال تكون معرفة بشكل خاصA,AN-136 A is used before words beginning with consonant sounds. A bird a historical event a yellow tie 137. THE is the definite article referring to a particular noun. It is used with both singular and plural nouns. . هي أداة تعريف تشير إلى اسم معين و تستخدم مع كال األسماء المفردة و الجمعTHE-137 The bird the yellow ties the items THE precedes the names of the rivers, of seas, Montana ranges, and of some countries. . أسماء األنهار و البحار و النطاق و بعض البلدانTHE تسبق The Yale River the Alps The Atlantic Ocean the United States THE precedes the names persons, countries, streets, cities, etc.,When they are used as adjectives. .الخ عندما تستخدم هذه الكلمات كصفات.. أسماء األشخاص و البلدان و الشوارع و المدنTHE تسبق The Korean coastline the Main Street merchants SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENTالتوافق بين الفاعل و الفعل 139. The subject of a sentence must agree with its predicate in number. .يجب أن يتطابق الفاعل في الجملة مع الخبر في العدد-139 The carton of eggs is on the table. (CARTON is the singular subject.) The data have arrived just in time. (DATA is the plural subject.) 140. If a parenthetical pharos-intervening words-appears between the subject and the predicate, ignore the phrase for purposes of making the verb agree. العبارات اإلعتراضية أو الكلمات التي تقع بين فقرتين تظهر بين الفاعل و الخبر المسند يجب تجاهلها بهدف جعل الفعل-140 .متوافق Joe, as well as his two cousins, calls me every day. (Joe . . . calls me every day.) My two aunts, along with their dog Albert, visit me every Sunday. (My two aunts . . . visit me every Sunday.) 141. When two subjects are joined by OR or NOR, the latter subject governs the choice of the predicate. . فإن الفاعل األخير يغطي اختيار الخبرOR,NOR عندما يتصل فعلين مع بعضهما ب-141 Either Willie or his boys are going to repair our barn. (. . . boys are going to . . . ) Neither the children nor their mother has flown before. (. . . mother has flown . . .) 142. THERE is an introductory word; it is not the subject of any sentence. The subject of a sentence determines whether the predicate is singular or plural, so one must determine the actual subject. فاعل الجملة هو الذي يقرر فيما إذا كان الخبر مفرد أو جمع لذلك. هي كلمة بادئة و هي ليست فاعل أي جملةTHERE-142 .يجب علينا أن نحدد الفاعل الحقيقي There is a girl up there. 22 (girl is the subject.,) There are 300 apartments in my building. (APARTMENTS is the subject.) Singular Predicatesاألخبار االسنادية المفردة 143. A collective noun subject-one which refers to a group or collection of things or people-takes a singular predicate when it is meant as a unit or a whole. . عندما يعني فاعل اسم المجموعة الذي يشير إلى مجموعة من األشياء أو الناس وحدة أو كل فإنه يأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد-143 The jury has been considering its verdict. Snails is the one food on this menu I haven’t tasted. 144. When the subject is a unit of measurement or a mathematical equation, the predicate is singular. . عندما يكون الفاعل وحدة قياس أو معادلة رياضية يكون الخبر اإلسنادي مفرد-144 Two and three is five. Two miles is all that we need to walk today. 145. Collective ideas or notions take singular predicates. .األفكار الجماعية تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد-145 Butter and eggs is my favorite breakfast. 146. Singular pronouns (AID 38) take singular predicates. .الضمائر المفردة تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد-146 Everyone is writing in his or her book. 147. When two or more singular subjects are joined by OR or NOR, the predicate is singular. . فإن الخبر اإلسنادي يكون مفردOR,NOR عندما يرتبط اثنان أو أكثر من الفاعلين المفردين ب-147 Either Jim or Sharon is a heavy smoker; I forget which. 148. Some subjects may appear plural in form, but they are actually singular, thus requiring a singular predicate. بعض الفا علين يمكن أن يظهروا بحالة الجمع بالشكل و لكنهم يكونون عادة مفردين و هكذا فهم يحتاجون إلى خبر إسنادي-148 .مفرد The news is good tonight. Economics is my favorite subject. 149. Relative pronouns whose antecedents are singular take singular predicates. .ضمائر القرابة و التي يكون االسم الذي تدل عليه مفرد تأخذ خبر إسنادي مفرد-149 They will pay overtime to whoever works. George is the one who receives all the mail in this house. Plural Predicatesالخبر اإلسنادي الجمع 150. A collective noun subject-one which refers to group or collection of things or people-takes a plural predicate when the individual elements are considered as separate. فاعل األسماء الجماعية و الذي يشير إلى مجموعة من األشياء أو الناس يأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع عندما نعتبر أن العناصر-150 .المفردة منفصلة The team are discussing the game among predicates. 151. Plural pronouns (Aid 39) take plural predicates. .الضمائر الجمع تأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع-151 Many are called, but few are chosen. 152. When two or more subjects are joined by AND , the predicate is plural. . يكون الخبر اإلسنادي جمعAND عندما يتصل فاعالن أو أكثر ب-152 23 Ellen and Mate come to class together. 153. A plural predicate is required when the subject is plural even though its complement is not. .نحتاج إلى الخبر اإلسنادي الجمع عندما يكون الفاعل جمع و إن لم تكن تكملة الجملة كذلك-153 Books are Janet’s true passion. 154. Some subjects are always plural in form and construction (Aid 11); they always require a plural predicate. .بعض الفاعلين يكونون دائما ً بحالة الجمع في الشكل و التركيب لذا فهم يحتاجون دائما ً إلى خبر إسنادي جمع-154 The pants are lying on the chair. 155. Relative pronouns whose antecedents are plural take plural predicates. .الضمائر الرابطة و التي تكون األسماء التي تدل عليها بحالة الجمع تأخذ خبر إسنادي جمع-155 Those who are late for work will have to be reprimanded. The people elect their senators, who then go to Washington. PRONOUNS AND CASE AGREEMENT الضمائر و حالة التوافق 156. Pronouns must be in their proper cases. If a singular pronouns refers to two ntecedents, it should agree with the nearer. . يجب أن يتوافق مع االسم األقرب, إذا أشار ضمير مفرد إلى اسمين سابقين.يجب أن تكون الضمائر في حاالتها الصحيحة-156 I’m going to make sure that Sam ََ and his two friends find their way to the picnic. (THEIR refers to Sam ََand to his two friends. Since his TWO FRIENDS is closer to the pronouns, it should be plural.) 157. When AS or THAN is used to introduce a clause, mentally complete the clause to determine the case of the pronouns. . للبدأ بالعبارة أكمل العبارة بشكل ذهني لتقرر حالة الضمائرAS,THAN عندما تستخدم-157 Paul is not as tall as I. ( . . . as I am tall.) No one could have fought harder than they. ( . . . than they fought.) the teacher caller calls on you more than she does me. ( . . . more than she calls on me.) 158. A pronoun appositive should be in the same case as the word it explains. .بدل الضمير يجب أن يكون في نفس الحالة التي تشرحها الكلمة-158 The painters, Harry and I, were the first to arrive. Mr. Roland bought lunch for both of us, Jackie and me. Subjective Case Pronouns ضمائر حالة الرفع 159. A predicate nominative is a word that renames or labels the subject and that follows a linking verb (Aid 44-c). It must be in the nominative or subjective case. .الخبر االسمي هو الخبر الذي يعيد تسمية الفاعل و الذي يتبع الفعل الرابط و يجب أن يكون في حالة الرفع-159 It was he who called you this morning. The best player may be he. 160. WHO, as a relative pronoun which introduces a dependent clause, will always be in the subjective case. . كضمير رابط و الذي يبتدأ العبارة التابعة دائما ً بحالة الرفعWHO يجب أن يكون-160 She is the student who scored the highest on the TOFEL Those who laugh last, laugh best. 161. When a pronoun is the subject of a verb in a statement, a phrase, a question, etc., it must be in the subjective case. .عندما يكون الضمير فاعل الفعل الموجود في التعبير و شبه الجملة و السؤال فإنها يجب أن تكون في حالة الرفع-161 Do we have to go to church this Sunday? Who knows, perhaps your candidate will win the election. 24 Objective Case Pronounsضمائر حالة النصب 162. Both the subject and the object of an infinitive are always in the objective case. .يكون كل من الفاعل و المفعول به للمصدر دائما ً في حالة النصب-162 They told her and me to leave immediately. (subject) It was they whom we wanted to choose. (subject) Did you take him to be me? (object) 163. Both the direct and the indirect object of a verb are always in the objective case. . يكون كل من المفعول به المباشر و الغير مباشر للفعل في حالة النصب-163 The manger gave Tom and me the day off. (indirect object) I often see them at the market. (direct object) 164. the object of a preposition is always in the objective case. . مفعول حرف الجر هو دائما ً في حالة النصب-164 Elsie always sits between Mary and me. I gave the presents to him and her. BUT is occasionally used as a preposition. No tenants but his and me attended the meeting. 165. WHOM, when used as a relative pronoun, is the recipient of the action of a verb and is in the objective case. Even when introduces a clause, note that the clause will already have a subject and that the subject usually follows WHOM. حتى عندما نبتدأ عبارة الحظ أن. كضمير رابط يكون مستقبل عمل الفعل و يكون في حالة النصبwhom عندما تستخدم-165 . whomً العبارة لها فاعل و هذا الفاعل يتبع دائما He is the player whom the coach rewarded. The people whom they arrested had been quietly protesting. Possessive Case Pronouns حالة تملك الضمائر 166. When pronouns modify gerunds, the pronouns must be in the possessive case. . يجب أن يكون في حالة التملكing عندما يصف ضمير صيغة مصدر منتهية ب-166 I was delighted by your winning the award. Pamela praises my singing the old hymns. (She is praising my singing, not me) 167. it is preferable to avoid using the possessive case with inanimate objects. .من المفضل عدم استخدام حالة التملك مع األشياء الغير حية-167 Poor: The car’s color is red. Better: The color of the car is red. DIRECT AND INDIRECT DISCOURESالكالم المباشر و الغير مباشر 168. Direct discourse is the direct quoting of a speaker or writer; quotation marks are used to set off the quoted words. Indirect discourse is the indirect quoting of a speaker or writer, using introductory verbs such as SAY, TELL, THINK, etc. No quotation marks are used. .. SAY,TELL,THINK الكالم المباشر هو االقتباس المباشر من المتحدث أو الكاتب و يستعمل أفعال بادئة مثل-168 .الخ و ال تستخدم عالمات االقتباس 169. in indirect discourse, use the past tense to express a present sense and use the past perfect tense to express the past. .استخدم الزمن الماضي في الكالم الغير مباشر للتعبير عن شعور حالي و استخدم الزمن الماضي التام للتعبير عن الماضي-169 25 Direct: Sue said: “I can meet you at midnight.” Indirect: Sue said she could meet me at midnight. Direct: Ed said: “I told you not to come.” Indirect: Ed said he had told us not to come. Note that in the second example the pronouns I and YOU had to changed to HE and US in the indirect discourse in order to agree with the new sentence structure. في الكالم الغير مباشر و ذلك للتوافق مع التركيبHE,US يجب أن يتغيروا إلىI ,YOU الحظ في المثال الثاني أن الضمير .الجديد للجملة 170. Commands in indirect discourse are expressed by using the in infinitive. .نعبر عن األوامر في الكالم الغير مباشر باستخدام المصدر-170 Direct: Martin cried out: “Stop that!” Indirect: Martin told them to stop it. 171. Questions in indirect discourse are expressed as statements. .نعبر عن األسئلة في الكالم الغير مباشر كتقرير-171 Direct: Alice asked: “Where does Ms. Susan live?” Indirect: Alice asked were Ms. Susan lived. 172. Questions with no question words may require the introduction of IF or WHETHER in indirect discourse. Direct: Indirect: . في الكالم الغير مباشرIF I,WHETHER تحتاج األسئلة التي تكون بدون اسم استفهام إلى البدأ ب-172 Jack asked: “Is my brother here?” Jack asked if his brother were here. PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERSتوضع المحورات 173. When modifiers or verbals are misplaced they are said to dangling. It may be necessary to rewrite sentences in order to avoid problems with dangling modifiers. عندما ال توجد أماكن للمحور أو االسم المشتق من الفعل يس ّمون متدليين لذا يجب كتابة الجمل لتجنب المشاكل مع المحورات-173 .المتدلية 174. Take care not to allow participles to dangle; they should always modify something. .ً يجب دائما ً أن تصف شيئا، كن حذرا ً أال تكون أسماء الفاعل متدليين-174 Poor: Walking down the path, the flowers can be seen in all their glory. Better: If one walks down the path, one can see the flowers in all their glory. (Who or what was walking down the paty?) Poor: Thoroughly cooked, we removed the casserole from the oven. Better: When the chicken was thoroughly cooked, we removed it from the oven. (Who what was thoroughly cooked?) 175. Be sure that gerunds do not dangle. . ال تتدلىING كن متأكدا ً أن صيغة المصدر التي تنتهي ب-175 Poor: While moving the bureau, my back was hurt. Better: I hurt my back while I was moving the bureau. One of the keys to insuring that gerunds are in their proper place is to watch for passive constructions. When a gerund appears in a sentence in which the main clause is in the passive voice, check to see that the gerund is properly placed. عندما يظهر المصدر في الجملة.واحد من الطرق التي تؤكد أن المصادر في مكانها الخاص هي مراقبة التراكيب المبنية للمجهول . افص لتر أن المصدر قد وضع في مكانه الخاص. التي تكون بها العبارة الرئيسية في صيغة المبني للمجهول 176. Take care that infinitives do not dangle needlessly with nothing to refer to. . كن حذرا ً أن المصادر ال تتدلى في الجملة بدون فائدة وبدون وجود شيء تشير إليه-176 Poor: To live life fully, friends are needed. Better: In order to live life fully, one must have friends. 177. Modifiers such as HARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY, etc., carry a negative meaning; therefore they should not used as modifiers of other negative words. 26 … الخ تحمل معنى النفي لذلك يجب أال يستخدموا كمحوراتHARDLY,SCARCELY,BARELY المحورات مثل-177 .لكلمات أخر منفية Poor: Gay didn’t hardly touch her dinner tonight. Better: Gay hardly touched her dinner tonight. Better: Gay didn’t hardly touch her dinner tonight. WORD ORDERالترتيب 178. The order of words in a sentence may be vital to the intended meaning. .يمكن أن يكون نظام الكلمات في الجملة أساسي للمعنى المقصود-178 Poor: Wave a kiss and throw me from the train window. (This may result in dearth.) Better: Wave and throw me a kiss from the train window. (Is the train window doing the kissing?) Better: Wave from the train window and throw me a kiss. (This sentence is logical and not misleading.) 179. A single word can change the whole meaning (Aid 101) of a sentence. .إن كلمة واحدة يمكن أن تغير كل المعنى في الجملة-179 Last week I almost lost $100. (No money was lost.) Last week I lost almost $100. (A lot money was lost.) 180. The placement of a phrase can be misleading. .ًتوضع شبه الجملة يمكن أن يكون مضلال-180 Poor: Penelope helps the baby with a smile on her face. (Who is smiling, Penelope or the baby?) Better: with a smile on her face, Penelope helps the baby. (This sentence is logical and not misleading.) 181. The placement of a clause can be misleading. .ً توضع العبارة يمكن أن يكون مضلال-181 Poor: Difficulties confronted the company which must be solved. (Is it the company which must be solved?) Better: Difficulties which must be solved confronted the company. 182. The placement of a pronoun can be misleading. A pronoun must be preceded by its antecedent. . يجب أن يُسبق الضمير باالسم الذي يدل عليه. ًتوضع الضمير يمكن أن يكون مضلال-182 Poor: When she was seven years old, Katie’s sister got the mumps. (Which person was seven years old at the time?) Better: Katie’s sister got the mumps when she was seven years old. 183. The normal word order for an English sentence is: subject, verb (predicate), indirect object, direct object, adverbial modifiers. Take care not to separate verbs from their direct objects with adverbial modifiers. . المحورات الظرفية، المفعول به المباشر، المفعول به الغير مباشر، الفعل، الترتيب الطبيعي للجملة اإلنكليزية هو الفاعل-183 .كن حذرا ً بأن تفصل األفعال من مفعوليهم المباشرين بالمحورات الظرفية Poor: We went last year to Lebanon. Better: We went to Lebanon last year. SENTENCE SENSEمعنى الجملة 184. If a group of words is put together without a subject and a predicate (even those which are understood), those words may be simply a sentence fragment. إذا وضعت مجموعة من الكلمات مع بعضها بدون فاعل أو خبر (حتى وإن فُهموا من سياق الكالم) تكون هذه الكلمات-184 .ببساطة أجزاء الجملة 185. a. Dependent clauses are often mistaken for complete sentences. 27 . غالبا ً يكون هناك خطأ في العبارات التابعة في الجمل الكاملة- أ-185 Poor: Mick was about to drop put of school. When he changed his mind. (The second sentence is not a sentence; it an adverbial clause.) Better: Just as he was about to drop out of school, Mick changed his mind. Poor: She studied long hours to improve her grades. Which happened in a short time. (The second sentence is not a sentence; it is a clause which cannot stand by itself.) Better: By studying long hours, she quickly improved her grades. b. Phrases are often mistaken for complete sentences. .غالبا ً ما تكون أشباه الجمل غير صحيحة في الجمل الكاملة-ب Poor: After coming in from the train. He dog shook water all over the floor. (The first sentence is not a sentence; it is a phrase with no predicate.) Better: After she came in from the train, the dog shook water all over the floor. 186. Take care not to use commas to join independent clauses or sentences. Use a period, a semicolon, or a coordinating conjunction to join them, or rewrite them to make one clause subordinate. استخدم نقطة أو فاصلة منقوطة أو حرف عطف منسق. كن حذرا ً أال تستخدم فواصل لتربط بين عبارتين أو جملتين مستقلتين-186 . أو أعد كتابتهم لتجعل عبارة واحدة تابعة، لتربطهم Poor: Sherry took the exam three times, she failed the exam. Better: Sherry took the exam three times, but she failed it each time. Better: Although Sherry took the exam three times, she failed it each time. Better: Sherry took the exam three times. Each time she took it, she failed it. SHORT ANSWERSاألجوبة المختصرة 187. Most direct question in English are answered with short answers, Short answers are formed by adding the subject of the sentence to the auxiliary verb or the verb TO BE, and by adding the words YES or NO. تُشكل األجوبة المختصرة بإضافة فاعل الجملة. يجاب على معظم األسئلة المباشرة في اللغة اإلنكليزية باألجوبة المختصرة-187 .NO أوYES و بإضافة الكلماتTO BE إلى الفعل المساعد أو إلى الفعل Do you play bridge? Yes, I do No, I don’t. Can he cook well? Yes, he can No he can’t. In short answers, noun subjects are generally replaced by pronouns. . الضمائر عادة تحل محل االسم الفاعل، في األجوبة المختصرة Is Mr. Joey in class today? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. Is the rain falling hard? Yes, it is. No, it isn’t. LOGICالمنطق 188. Every part of a sentence should contribute to the central thought. Do not combine unrelated ideas. . ال تجمع بين أفكار غير مرتبطة ببعضها.يجب على كل جزء من الجملة أن يسهم الفكرة الرئيسية-188 Poor: The students were in the library and they were all from different countries. (These are two independent ideas, both with merit. They do not belong in the same sentence, whomever. If both are needed, rewrite the sentence making one the thoughts dependent on the other.) Better: Students from all over the world were using the library. 189. Be sure to arrange the thought in a sentence in a logical order. .ًكن متأكدا ً أن ترتب الفكرة في الجملة في ترتيبا ً منطقيا-189 Poor: The butter was made, the icing was applied, and the cake was baked. (Icing is the last step in cake baking.) Better: The butter was made, the cake was baked, and the icing was applied. 190. Take care not to make illogical statements. . كن حذرا ً أال تصنع تعابير غير منطقية-190 28 Poor: Reading street signs is a real problem for the illiterate. (Since the illiterate cannot read, reading cannot be a problem Inability to read is the problem.) Better: The inability to read street signs is a real problem for the illiterate. SUBORDINATIONالتابعية 191. Take care not to place the main or principal thought in a sentence in a subordinate position. . كن حذرا ً أال تضع الفكرة الرئيسية في الجملة في الموقع التابع-191 Poor: The car slowly rumbled to a halt as I realized we had run out of gas. (The main idea is that the car is running out of gas. AS should not be introducing a main idea, it should be introducing a subordinate clause.) Better: As the car slowly rumbled to a halt. I realized we had run out of gas. 192. Use the correct subordinating conjunction. . استخدم حرف الجر التابع الصحي-192 Poor: The reason she is fat because she overeats. Better: The reason she is fat is that she overeats. 193. Beware of using coordinating conjunction which may nullify subordination. . كن حذراً من استخدام أحرف الجر النظيرة ة التي يمكن أن تلغي التبعية-193 Poor: I want to buy the blue suit but which is too costly for me. (But has no place in this sentence; the two ideas are not of equal rank and thus cannot be connected by a coordinating conjunction. One idea is clearly dependent on the other.) Better: I want to buy the blue suit which is too costly for me. 194. Don’t fail to subordinate when it is valuable. Subordination is a good tool for sentence flow and can be used to join tow ideas without coordinating them illogically. اإلتباع هي أداة جيدة من أجل انسيابية الجملة و يمكن أن يستخدم لوصل فكرتين. ً ال تفشل في أن تتبع عندما يكون ذلك قيما-194 .بدون جعلهم متناظرتين بشكل غير منطقي Poor: Josephine is in the room, and Hugh won’t speak to her. Better: Even though Josephine is in the room, Hugh will not speak to her. PARALLELISMالتوازن 195. Similar ideas should be placed in the same kinds of grammatical constructions. Parallelism is important for clarity and for smoothness. . إن التوازن هام من أجل الوضوح و الهدوء.يجب أن توضع األفكار المتشابهة في نفس النوع من التركيب القواعدي-195 Poor: It was cold, dark, and there was too much wind. (The list begins with two adjective complements, so it should continue with anther one.) Better: It was cold, dark, and windy. Poor: Ice skating is more exciting than to roller skate. (A gerund is being compared with an infinitive. It should be compared with anther gerund.) Better: Ice skating is more exciting than roller skating. (This description of an event uses the active voice, but then needlessly switches to the passive voice.) Poor: The motor sputtered, coughed, and then stalled. 196. It may be necessary to repeat a few words to clarify parallelism. . من الضروري إعادة بعض الكلمات لتوضي التوازن-196 Poor: We called our father and boss. (This could mean our father is our boss.) Better: We called our father and we called our boss. Better: We called our father and our boss. Poor: She wrote to her sister and roommate. Better: (This could mean her sister is her roommate.) 197. Correlative conjunction (either . . . or, not only . . . but also, etc.) should only be used in sentences with parallel structures. 29 ( يجب أن تستخدم فقط في الجمل مع التراكيبeither…or, not only…but also ,etc) أحرف الجر المترابطة-197 .المتوازنة Poor: Roberta is not only a good secretary, but also she is able to organize things well. (Parallelism using two predicate nominative would make for a smoother sentence.) Better: Roberta is not only a good secretary, but also a good organizer. REDUNDANCIESاإلسهاب 198. Unnecessary repletion of words should be avoided. . يجب تجنب االكتظاظ الغير هام للكلمات-198 Poor: Ralph went to the post office, to the supermarket, to the drugstore, and to the library. (There is no need for all the prepositions.) Better: Ralph went to the post office, the supermarket, the drugstore, and the library. 199. In the following sentences, the underlined words or phrases are examples of redundancies which may be deleted as unnecessary to the meaning or flow of a sentence. في الجمل التالية الكلمات و أشباه الجمل التي تحتها خط هي عبارة عن اسهابات و التي ربما يجب حذفها كضرورة من أجل-199 .المعنى أو سالسة الجملة It came at a time when we were busy. During the year of 1492, Columbus set sail. Sara lives in the city of Boston. Perhaps it may be that you don’t want to be here. The table is made out of mahogany. She came at the hour of 9:00. Aunt Carol promised to send us a present at a later date. Edward’s car cost the sum of $3,500. I’ll be there in about two weeks’ time. It was the consensus of opinion the Louise serves as our director. (CONSENSUS names a collective opinion.) THE FULL STOPالنقطة 200. The full stop is used: : تستخدم النقطة-200 201. At the end of all sentences except questions and exclamations, e.g. .في نهاية الجملة ما عدا األسئلة و التعجب-201 He needs your help. (Statement) Help him. (Command) Will you help him? (Question) He cried ,Help ! (Exclamation) 202. After abbreviation such as M. A. (=Master of Arts) M. A. (=Master of Arts) بعد االختصارات مثل-202 H.M.S. Valiant (=Her Majesty , s ship Valiant ), U.S.A. (= United States of America), e.g. (= Latin: example gratia = for example ), etc . It is used after initials, e.g. C. H. Brown, (= memorandum ). But if the contraction includes the final letter of the word the full stop is often omitted, e.g. Dr, Mr., Ltd., Chas. Etc THE COLONالنقطتين 203. The colon is used to separate two sentences of which the second explains more fully the meaning of the first, i.e. it often . تستخدم النقطتين لتفصل جملتان حيث تشرح الثانية معنى الجملة األولى بشكل أكمل-203 means the same as , that is to say , ,e.g. Richard, s work is unsatisfactory: his answers are thought30 less, his spelling is careless and his writing is bad. 204. It may also take the place of a conjunction introducing a clause of reason, e.g. . يمكن أن تأخذ مكان حرف العطف مبتدئة العبارة السببية-204 Thompson isn t going to join our firm: we couldn’t offer Him a big enough salary (= because we couldn’t…) 205. To introduce a number of items in a list, or to introduce a quotation , e.g. . للبدأ بعدد من المواد كقائمة أو للبدأ باقتباس-205 He offered me the choice of any one of these for a wedding Present: a set of fish knives, a pewter teapot, an electric toaster, a standard lamp. Shakespeare said: ‘ Neither a borrower nor a lender be.’ ’ THE SEMI-COLONالفاصلة المنقوطة The semi-colon is useful when we need a longer pause than Is indicated by a comma, as would happen if we used a full stop. It is used: إنها تستخدم.الفاصلة المنقوطة مفيدة عندما نحتاج إلى وقف أطول من ذاك الذي نشير إليه بالفاصلة و كما يحدث إذا استخدمنا نقطة : 206. To separate co-ordinate sentences when a conjunction is not used, e.g. . للفصل بين جملتين متوازيتين عندما ال نستخدم حرف الجر-206 ‘Your appearance pleased my friend; it delighted me; I have watched your behavior in strange circumstances; I have studied how you played and how you bore your Losses; lastly, I have put you to the test of a staggering Announcement, and you received it like an invitation to Dinner.’ --- (R. L. Stevenson, The Suicide Club) - Note how, in this example, shorter pauses are shown by the Commas. 207. With words like therefore, however, nevertheless, besides, also, otherwise, and sometimes so. These words join sentences but are stronger than conjunctions like and, and so need a stronger punctuation mark. Here are some examples: هذه الكلمات.therefore, however, nevertheless, besides, also, otherwise, sometimes مع كلمات مثل-207 . لذا فهي تحتاج إلى عالمة ترقيم أقوand تربط الجمل و لكنها أقو من أحرف الجر مثل You have done the works well; therefore I will pay you well. You must take more exercise; otherwise you will get too fat. Richard didn’t work hard; so he didn’t pass his examination. THE COMMAالفاصلة The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark And has many uses. Your common sense and the desire to make Your meaning clear will often tell you where a pause is needed, But the following ‘rules’, though they do not cover all the Uses may be helpful. A comma is generally used: يمكنك بالحس العام و بالرغبة لجعل المعنى الذي تقصده. الفاصلة هي أكثر عالمات الترقيم استخداما ً و لها استخدامات متعددة لكنها يمكن أن تكون، بالرغم من أن األحكام التالية ال تغطي كل االستعماالت.واض أن تقرر أين تحتاج وضع عالمة الوقف : تستخدم الفاصلة عادة.مساعدة 208.To record a list of things, etc., e.g. لتسجيل قائمة باألشياء-208 At the party we had cakes, jellies, ices, biscuits, chocolate, and lemonade. - Notice that the comma is usually put before and the last Item. Some writers disagree with this. 209.To mark off direct speech: : لفصل الكالم المباشر-209 , ‘Tell me, how you know all that .’ George replied, ‘I heard it on the radio.’ 210.To mark off sentences or clauses where a pause is needed In reading. This is almost always the case with an adverb 31 .هذه هي الحالة مع الظرف.لفصل الجمل و العبارات حيث نحتاج للوقف في القراءة-210 Although it was foggy, we played the match. I have explained this work to Richard, but he still doesn’t Understand it. If you will help me, I will help you. When an adverb clause follows the principal clause, the Omission of the comma places more emphasis on the adverb Clause, e.g. .عندما تتبع العبارة الظرفية العبارة الرئيسية فإن حذف الفاصلة يجسد تأكيد على العبارة الظرفية ‘He came because I asked him to’ (answering the question, ‘Why did he come?’) 211.To mark off words used in addressing a person (the Nominative of address), e.g. ) لفصل الكلمات التي تستخدم في مخاطبة شخص ما ( حالة الرفع في المخاطبة-211 George, I hope you and Mary can come to the party. I should be very glad, Charles, if you would do this for me. 212.To mark off words or phrases like however ,1therefore ,of Course, for instance, etc .…الخhowever, therefore, of course, for instance لفصل الكلمات و أشباه الجمل مثل-212 You know, of course ,the way to Lawton; I needn’t, therefore send you a route map. 213. In descriptive titles such as: : في وصف األلقاب مثل-213 Elizabeth II, Queen of Great Britain…. I saw Mr. Smith, your teacher, this morning. 214. To mark off phrases containing a participle when a pause is required in reading: . للفصل بين أشباه جمل تتألف من مصدر عندما نحتاج للوقف في القراءة-214 George, seeing that hi brother was hurt, ran to help him. 215.The comma is not used in English to separate a defining Relative clause2 or a noun clause from the rest of the sentence. It must be used before the relative pronoun in a non-defining Clause. يجب استخدامها. ال تُستخدم الفاصلة في اللغة اإلنكليزية لتفصل العبارة الرابطة ال ُمحددة أو العبارة االسمية من باقي الجملة-215 .قبل الضمير الرابط في العبارة الغير محددة Here is the book that you wanted. (Defining Clause) He asked me where I was going. (Noun clause) George, who is in my class, has won a scholarship. (NonDefining Clause) Question Markإشارة االستفهام 216.A Question Mark is used after a direct question, but not after an indirect one e.g. Direct .I said to him, ‘When are you going to Scotland. .تستخدم إشارة االستفهام بعد السؤال المباشر ال غير المباشر-216 THE EXCLAMARýTUýION MARKإشارة التعجب 217.The Exclamation Mark is used after an interjection, an Exclamatory sentence or an expression of great feeling. .تستخدم إشارة التعجب بعد صوت تعجب أو جملة تعجب أو بعد التعبير عن شعور عظيم-217 ‘Hello! I didn’t expect to see you.’ ‘There goes our train!’ ‘What a wonderful day that was!’ THE DASH)الشاحطة (الشرطة 218.The dash is used to indicate (I) an afterthought-an emendation, or (2) an unexpected turn in a sentence, e.g. .تغير غير متوقع في الجملة-2. التفصي عن فكرة تخطر في البال-1 تستخدم الشاحطة لتشير إلى-218 I spoke to Mary-you know, Harry’s wife-and told her what you said, The information that Fred gives you on every subject under the sun is always very full and is given with an air of complete confidence. There is only ting wrong with it-it is never correct. 32 QUOTATION MARKSعالمات االقتباس 219.Quotation Marks are used to enclose direct speech. تستخدم عالمات االقتباس لتغطي كالم مباشر-219 I said, ‘I have only spoken to him on one occasion.’ He shouted, ‘What are you doing here?’ I have spoken to him, a I said, ‘on only one occasion.’‘ Note that the full stop, exclamation mark, the question mark and the comma come inside the quotation marks. Quotation marks may be single (‘’) or double (“”). .)" "(يمكن لعالمات االقتباس أن تكو ن مفردة )’‘( أو مزدوجة THE APOSTROPHEالفاصلة العليا 220.The Apostrophe is used to show (1) the possessive case, e.g. .تستخدم الفاصلة العليا لتُري حالة التملك-220 My brother’s house, Jon’s wife, the boy’s cap (singular, one boy) The boys’ school (plural, for a lot of boys) 221.The omission of a letter or letters, e.g. .حالة حذف حرف أو مجموعة حروف-221 1 I’ve (= I have) , don’t (= do not ), it’s ( = it is ), O’clock (= of the clock ) . THE USE OF CAPITALSاستخدام األحرف الكبيرة 222.For the beginning of a sentence. .لبداية الجملة-222 223.For proper nouns, e.g. Joan, November, London, etc., .ألسماء العلم-223 224.And for adjectives formed from proper nouns e.g. .للصفات التي تتشكل من أسماء العلم-224 Scotch whisky, the French language, Elizabethan poets. 225.A capital letter is used for the name of God, Christ, and Trinity.Bible, etc., and a pronoun or possessive adjective applying to god as a capital letter, e.g. الخ و الضمائر و صفات التملك المنسوبة.. يستخدم الحرف الكبير من أجل أسماء هللا و المسي و و الثالوث و الكتب السماوية-225 .هلل They trusted in God That He would save is people. 226.For the chief words in titles of people, books, plays, Etc., e.g. . في الكلمات الرئيسية في ألقاب الناس و الكتب و المسرحيات …الخ-226 Elizabeth the Second, Alfred the great. A Midsummer Night’s Dream. 227.For salutations and forms of address, e.g. on letters: . من أجل التحيات و أشكال األلقاب-227 Dr, Mr., Miss, Mr., and for the greeting and complimentary close, e.g. Dear Sir, Yours faithfully. 228.For the abbreviations of degrees, titles, etc. . من أجل اختصارات الدرجة و العناوين-228 M.P. (=ember of parliament), Q.C. (= Queen’s Counsel) , B.Sc. (=Bachelor of Science). 229.The opening word of direct speech, e.g. . من أجل الكلمات البادئة في الكالم المباشر-229 He said, ‘What do you want?’ 230.The capital letter is not repeated in the second part of a Broken quotation, e.g. .ال يتكرر الحرف الكبير في الجزء الثاني من االقتباس المفصول-230 ‘I am working hard now’, e said in order to provide for my old ago.’ 231.For the first word in each line of poetry: . من أجل الكلمة األولى في كل بداية خط في الشعر-231 She lived unknown, and few could know When Lucy ceased to be; 33 But she is in her grave, and Oh, The difference to me! (Words worth) But some modern poets disregard this convention. 232.For the first person singular I (but not for me, my, etc.) . من أجل الشخص األول المفرد-232 233.For personification (generally in poetry): ) من أجل التشخيص (عادة في الشعر-233 O wild West Wide, thou breath of Autumn’s being. If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley) 234.SOME NOTES ON CONTRACTIONSبعض المالحظات حول االختصارات-234 235. Apostrophes are used in contractions to indicate omitted letters. Contractions are used less frequently in writing than in speech, but they are found in all uses of the language. These are some common verb contractions with pronouns: ال يتكرر استخدام االختصارات في الكتابة كما في الكالم. تستخدم الفواصل العليا في االختصار لتشير إلى أحرف محذوفة-235 : و هذه بعض اختصارات األفعال الشائعة مع الضمائر.لكنهم يتواجدون في كل استخدامات اللغة These are some common verb contractions with the adverb NOT: I’d (I had, I would) Aren’t (are not) You’d (you had, you would) Isn’t (is not) He’d (he had, he would) Weren’t (were not) She’d (she had, she would) Wasn’t (was not) It’d (it had, it would) Can’t (can not) They’d (they had, they would) Couldn’t (could not) I’m (I am) Won’t (will not) You’re (you are) Wouldn’t (would not) He’s (he is, he has) Shan’t (shall not) She’s (she is, she has) Shouldn’t (should not) It’s (it is, it has) Needn’t (need not) We’re (we are) Mustn’t (must not) They’re (they are) Haven’t (have not) I’ve (I have) Hasn’t (has not) You’ve (you have) Hadn’t (had not) We’ve (we have) Don’t (do not) They’ve (they have) Doesn’t (does not) Let’s (let us) Didn’t (did not) What’s (what is) That’s (that is) I’ll (I will. I shall) You’ll (you will, you shall) He’ll (he will, he shall) She’ll (she will, she shall) It’ll (it will, it shall) We’ll (we will, we shall) They’ll (they will, they shall) 236. AINT is not acceptable as a contraction for any words in English. . ليست مقبولة كاختصار ألجل أي كلمة في اللغة اإلنكليزيةAINT -236 237. Selected Usage Problems أخطاء منتقاة في االستعمال-237 238. ACCEPT is a verb meaning to receive willingly. EXCEPT is a preposition meaning excluding, other than, or but; or a verb meaning to leave out. 34 . هو فعل يعني أن يستقبل برضاACCEPT -238 . هو حرف جر يعني االستثناء أو ماعدا أو لكن أو فعل يعني يهملEXCEPT Did you accept his offer? Yes, except for the delivery time. They excepted him from testifying at the trial. 239. ADAPT is a verb meaning to change. ADEPT is an adjective meaning skillful. ADOPT is a verb meaning to take as one’s own. . هو فعل يعني يغيرADAPT -239 . هي صفة تعني بارعADEPT. هو فعل يعني يتخذ خاصية شخصADOPT The adept could adopted the orphan boy, who quickly adapted to the their ways. 240. AFFECT is a verb meaning to influence. AFFECT is a noun meaning result. . هو فعل يعني يؤثرAFFECT -240 . هو اسم يعني نتيجةAFFECT This will have a profound effect on me. Will it affect you too? 241. Use ALSO and TOO in affirmative statements and questions. Use EITHER in negative sentences في التعابير اإليجابية و في األسئلةALSO,TOO استخدم-241 . في الجمل المنفيةEITHER استخدمDo you want the sports section, too? No, and I don’t want the financial section either. 242. An ALLUSION is an indirect reference. An ILLUSION is an unreal image. DLUSION is a false belief. To ALLUDE is to mention indirectly. To ELUDE is to evade or avoid. To DELUDE is to deceive. . هو داللة غير مباشرةAN ALLUSION -242 . هي صورة غير حقيقيةAN ILUSION . هي اعتقاد خاطئDELUSION . هو أن تذكر بشكل غير مباشرTO ALLUDE . هو أن تتهرب أو تتجنبTO ELUDE . هو أن تخدعTO DELUDE Norman alluded to a book that his teacher had never read. We eluded the man pursuing us. The swindler deluded many people. The two warring leaders made an allusion to the illusion of peace which surrounded their talks; it was a hopeless delusion. 243. An ALUMNUS (plural ALUMNI) is a male graduate. An ALUMNA (plural ALUMNE) is a female graduate. . هو متخرج مذكرAN ALUMNUS -243 . هي متخرجة مؤنثAN LUMNA244.ANYONE, as a one-word term, means anybody. . هي كلمة واحدة و تعني أي شخصANYONE -244 ANY ONE, as a two-word term, means any single person or thing. . ككلمتين و تعني أي شخص أو شيء مفردANYONE 245.BAD is an adjective. . هو صفةBAD -245 BAD drives badly. 246.A BILLION means: : تعنيA BILLION -246 1,000,000,000 in America; 1,000,000,000,000 in Britain and in Germany. 247.To BRING means to move something toward the speaker. 35 To TAKE means to move something away from the speaker. . تعني أن تحرك شيء ما باتجاه المتكلمTO BRING -247 . تعني أن تحرك شيء ما بعيداً عن المتكلمETO TAKR Take this pie over to your grandmother’s, and when you Return, bring her laundry with you, so we can do it for her. 248.To COMPARE is to examine for similarities or resemblance. To COMPARE is to examine for differences. . هو أن تفحص التشابهات أو الشبهTO COMPARE -248 . هو أن تفحص االختالفاتTO COMPARE 249.The terms CONTROLLER and COMPTROLLER both describe the chief financial officer of an organization; there is no difference in meaning. يصفان القائد المالي في المنظمة أي أته ال يوجد اختالف فيCONTROLLER, COMPTROLLER المصطلحان-249 .المعنى 250.An EMIGRANT is a person leaving one country for another. An IMMIGRANT is a person coming into one country from another. . هو شخص يغادر من بلد إلى آخرAN EMIGRANT -250 . هو شخص يأتي إلى بلد معين من بلد آخرAN IMMIGRANT 251.FEW (fewer) is used with countable nouns. LESS is used with uncountable nouns (collectives). . تستخدم مع األسماء المعدودةFEW(fewer) -251 . تستخدم مع األسماء الغير معدودةLESS Fewer dollars Less money 252.GOOD is an adjective and must modify a noun. WELL as an adverb must modify a verb, an adjective, or anther adverb; as an adjective it can mean healthy. . هو صفة و يجب أن يصف االسمGOOD -252 .يمكن أن يعني كصفة الصحة الجيدة. هو ظرف و يجب أن يصف الفعل و الصفة أو ظرف آخرWELLHe is a good mechanic. He drives well. James was sick, but now he’s well. 253.A person is HANGED when executed by HANGING. ُ الشخص-253 .HANGING شنق عندما يُعدم بكلمة A picture is HUNG on a wall. .الصورة معلقة على الحائط 254. To IMPLY means to hint or suggest. To INFER means to draw a conclusion. . تعني يشير أو يقترحTO IMPLY -254 . تعني ليرسم النتيجةTO INFER I imply it by what I say to you. I infer it form what you say to me. 255. INCREDIBLE means improbable or unbelievable. INCREDULOUS means skeptical or unbelieving. . تعني غير ممكن أو غير قابل للتصديقINCREDIBLE -255 . تعني شكوكي أو غير مؤمنINCREDULOUS June told an incredible story to an incredulous audience. 256. Lay is a transitive verb meaning to put or to place. (Principal parts: lay , laid, laying , laid) . هو فعل متعد يعني يضعLAY -256 257. LIE is an intransitive verb meaning to recline, rest, or remain. (Principal parts: lie, lay, lying, lain) . يستري أو يبقى، هو فعل الزم و يعني يستلقيLIE -257 Lay the books on the table. 36 Yesterday they laid our new rug. If Lorraine is tired, have her lie down for a nap. Yesterday she lay down for a nap. 258. To LET means to permit or to rent. To LEAVE means to cause to remain or to go away. تعني يسم أو يستأجرTO LET -258 . يعني أن يسبب أن يبقى أو أن يغادرTO LEAVE Let me help you find a new apartment; I know a building manager who has apartments to let. Leave the door open; I am going to leave in a few minutes. 259. A MAJORITY is more than half of the total. A PLURALITY is the highest number within a greater number, but less than one-half. . هي أكثر من نصف الكلA MAJORITY -259 . هي أعلى رقم ضمن الرقم الكبير و لكنه أقل من النصف الواحدA PLURALITY 260. MUCH modifies uncountable nouns such as COFFEE. .COFFE تصف األسماء الغير معدودة مثلMUCH -260 261. MANY modifies countable nouns such as CUP. .CUP تصف األسماء المعدودة مثلMANY -261 Do you drink much coffee? How many cups of coffee have you had today? 262.Both MUCH and MANY are used in both negative sentences and in questions. 263.A LOT OF is used in affirmative statements. I drink a lot of coffee. تستخدمان في الجمل المنفية و في األسئلةMUCH,MAY كل من-263 264. To PRECEDE means to go before. To proceed means to go continue to advance. . تعني أن يذهب قبلTO PRECEDE -264 . تعني أن يستمر في التقدمTO PROCEED A precedes B in the alphabet. You may proceed with your work. 265. PRINCIPAL as a noun means the director of a school, a person who is in charge, or a sum of money; as an adjective it means main or most important. أما كصفة فهي تعني. كاسم تعني مدير المدرسة أو الشخص الذي يكون في وصية أو مجموعة من النقودPRINCIPAL -265 .الرئيسي أو األكثر أهمية 266. PRINCIPLE is a noun meaning rule, law, or basic truth. . هو اسم يعني القاعدة أو القانون أو الحقيقة األساسيةPRINCIPLE -266 The principal at our high Scholl made sure that we learned the principles of good citizenship; that was his principal accomplishment. 267. RAISE is a transitive verb requiring a direct object. It means to lift, to elevate, . و هو يعني يرفع أو يسمو. هي فعل متعد يحتاج إلى مفعول به مباشرRAISE -267 or rear children. (Principal parts: raise, raised, raising, raised) RISE is an intransitive verb taking no direct object. It means to assume a standing position, to get out of bed, or to increase in value. (Principal parts: rise, rose, rising, risen) . هو فعل الزم ال يأخذ مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني أن تفترض حالة معينة أو أن تخرج خارج السرير أو أن تزداد في القيمةRISE Raise the window. She raised twelve children by herself. We all rose from the table at once. What time did you rise this morning? 268. SET is a transitive verb requiring a direct object. It means to put or place in a specific spot. (Principal parts: set, set, setting, set) SIT is an intransitive verb taking no direct object. It means to assume a resting position with the body 37 supported by the buttocks. (Principal parts: sit, sat, sitting, sat) . هو فعل متعد يحتاج إلى مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني أن تضع في بقعة محددةSET -268 . هو فعل الزم ال يأخذ مفعول به مباشر و هو يعني افتراض موقع راحة للجسم ُمساند بردفانSIT Set the peanut butter jar on the shelf. Mom told us all to sit down. 269. Use SAY with direct quotations and with indirect quotations when the person spoken to is not mentioned. . في االقتباس المباشر و الغير المباشر عندما يكون الشخص الذي نتحدث إليه غير مذكورSAY استخدم-269 270. UseTELL with indirect quotations when the person spoken to is mentioned. . في االقتباس الغير مباشر عندما يكون الشخص الذي نتحدث إليه مذكورTELL استخدم-270 Bill said. “Where are you?” Tony says he is studying chemistry. Tony told us he was studying. Here are a few idiomatic uses of TEEL: Tell the truth tell a story Tell a lie tell time 271. STATIONARY means standing in one place. . تعني أن تقف في موقع واحدSTATIONARY -271 272. STATIONARY means writing paper. . تعني ورقة الكتابةSTATIONARY -272 While Ann browsed in the stationery store, her dog stood stationery outside the door. 273.Still AS AN ADVERB MEANS EVEN UP TO THE PRESENT TIME. It is usually placed before the main verb. . إنها عادة تتوضع قبل األفعال الرئيسية، تعني حتى الزمن الحاليSTILL بما أن الظرف-273 274.ANYMORE means at the present time. It is used only in a negative sentence, and is usually placed at the end of the sentence. . تعني في الوقت الحالي و تستخدم فقط في الجملة المنفية و عادة تتوضع في نهاية الجملةANYMORE -274 Are you still going to school? No, not anymore. 275.UNTIL is used with time expressions. . تستخدم في التعبير عن الوقتUNTIL -275 276.AS FAR AS and TO are used with distance expressions. . تستخدم في التعبير عن المسافةAS FAR AS -276 I’ll wait until 5:00 this afternoon. I’ll walk as far as the corner. I’ll walk to the corner. 277.One WINS a game, but one BEATS an opponent. . واحد يرب اللعبة لكن واحد يسحق الخصم-277 New York won the World Series by beating Los Angles. 278.Use YET only in negative sentences and in questions. . فقط في الجمل المنفية و في األسئلةYET استخدم-278 279.Use ALREADY only in affirmative sentences and in questions. . فقط في الجمل اإليجابية و في األسئلةALREADY استخدم-279 We have already been to Egypt three times, but we haven’t Seen the pyramids yet. 280-use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. 99 إلى21 نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات في األعداد المركبة من-280 281. Use a hyphen in compound noun or compound adjectives that has the force of a single word. Mother-in-law . نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات في األسماء المركبة و الصفات المركبة التي قوة كلمة مفردة-281 282. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line. Avoid dividing words at the end of a line if the words are proper names or if the division would result in one letter remaining on a line alone. تجنب فصل الكلمات في نهاية السطر إذا كانت الكلمات أسماء علم. نستخدم فاصلة الكلمات لفصل الكلمات في نهاية السطر-282 .أو إذا كان الفصل الذي ينتج عن حرف واحد يبقى في السطر لوحده 38