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Key Stage 2 English Definition of Terms This is a reference tool to help mark to the national standards, this is not an exhaustive list, alternative terms may appear in some mark schemes. Sentence Structure & Punctuation SSP Simple sentence Clause Subordinate clause Compound sentence Complex sentences A sentence with only one clause (main important clause) Eleanor jumped out of the window Simple sentences vary in length ‘Oi’ as a short example and ‘Right in front of him was an underground cave of monumental size’ as a longer example. Part of a sentence which includes a verb, a main clause is a clause which makes sense on its own. Clauses can be abbreviated into phrases for economy, by omitting the subject/verb: Although in a panic, Ali crept slowly on. Amplifies the main clause but does not make complete grammatical sense on its own. The position of subordinating connectives can vary She heard a noise that sounded like a dog barking. When a family of four have a bath, they may empty and fill it 3 times. A sentence which has 2 or more clauses of equal weight joined by and, but, or, so (co-ordinating conjunctions) A floorboard creaked and he started to shiver. A sentence with at least one main clause and one or more subordinate (or dependent) clauses. Usually joined by a subordinating conjunction/connective (e.g because, if, whether, until) or a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which). Varying the position of the main or subordinating clauses is one way of varying sentence structure. Maddy Barnes, 2012 Page 1 Embedded clauses Building up sentences Connectives Verb terms An embedded clause does not need to refer to the subject or be placed between the subject and the verb. When clauses are embedded, we may need to credit for ‘economy of expression’. Noun phrases/expanded noun phrases: Noun phrase is a wider term than ‘noun’ and may refer to a single noun ‘money’ or a group of words that functions in the same way as a noun in a sentence ‘a lot of money’. A noun phrase may be expanded in various ways to include more information about a noun ‘thousands of pieces of litter’, the little bit of light shining from under the door’. Noun phrases allow the writer to expand information economically. Adverbials/adverbial phrases: Adverbials can be single words or phrases. They are used to express a wide range of meanings such as time, place, manner, degree. They can be used in several positions in a clause or sentence and can perform several roles, for example, linking parts of a sentence as well as modifying a verb, Adverbials can have nouns or noun phrases within them. Conscious selection and placing of adverbials can increase effectiveness and precision e.g. ‘If these things do not change, the earth will be damaged beyond repair,’ At sentence level, connectives are single words or phrases which link clauses within a sentence (within sentences, connectives are sometimes referred to as conjunctions). Connectives can be: Co-ordinating connectives: can express a limited range of relationships between ideas and events within the sentence ( hot or cold, arms and legs) Subordinating connectives: one of the ways of indicating that one clause is grammatically subordinate to or dependent on another in complex sentences. They introduce a subordinate clause in a sentence and determine the relationship of meaning between the subordinate and main clause e.g. because, as, when, if Simple past tense: single word form of the past She ran Complex verb forms: Present continuous: He is walking Maddy Barnes, 2012 Page 2 Past continuous: She was running, Present perfect: He has walked, Present perfect continuous: He has been walking, Past perfect: She had run, Past perfect continuous: She had been running. English has no specific future tense – it can be expressed in a number of ways, the modal will or present tense We will certainly win tomorrow, we are going to win tomorrow, we win tomorrow … or else! Passive constructions Impersonal constructions Modals: modal verbs express different degrees of conditionality about the likelihood of events – will, shall, may, might, can, could, would. If rare animals ate this litter they would die and a whole species could be wiped out. These are constructions which use the passive voice. Choice of voice enables the writer to place the focus on the ‘doer’ of the action (active voice) or on the action itself and its recipient (passive voice). The passive voice is associated with more impersonal, formal forms of writing e.g. Somebody saw her (active voice). She was seen (passive voice). These may use the passive voice, but not necessarily so. The writer may choose to write a sentence from an impersonal perspective for particular effect e.g. to generalise or place the particular in a wider context, to imply significance beyond the particular, to convey objectivity. The effect of litter on the environment is obvious. or It was a mystery. Maddy Barnes, 2012 Page 3 Text Structure and Organisation TSO Coherence: this term is used to refer to the underlying logic and consistency of a text. The ideas expressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can follow the meaning. The relationships between sections/paragraphs give structure to the whole text e.g. by referring forwards and backwards. Cohesion: this refers to the grammatical features of a text which enable the parts to fit together. Cohesion can be created by the following devices: pronouns, adverbials, connectives and reference chains. Pronoun Adverbials A word which stands in for a noun or noun phrase and avoids repetition of the noun. The significance of pronouns in terms of textual organisation is their ability to act as cohesive devices by linking meaning economically between sentences through reference to preceding nouns/noun phrases. When a person buys a designer purse, they may spend thousands of pounds. This is a bit excessive. To resolve this, try promoting high street brands. As well as their function within sentences, adverbials operate at text level and are one of the ways writers can link different paragraphs or sections of text to signal their relationship to each other to maintain whole text coherence and within paragraphs or sections to maintain cohesion by linking sentences with one another. Connectives can link clauses in sentences ( e.g. although, as, since) can connect adverbials (e.g. however, therefore, then, nevertheless) maintain cohesion by addition ( e.g e.g. also, furthermore) opposition (e.g. however, on the other hand) cause (e.g. consequently, therefore) time (e.g. immediately, as soon as, after) Maddy Barnes, 2012 Page 4 Reference chains In their cohesive function, pronouns also act as connectives, as do prepositional phrases e.g Under the circumstances… Textual connectives also help build up referential meaning so that the reader is guided through the text, by being shown how the different parts relate to each other within and across paragraphs, rather than having to deduce the relationship purely from the connection between the content. These connectives act as a sort of ‘glue’ which makes the textual links between ‘content’ words such as nouns, adjectives and verbs more precise. Keeping fit is a contemporary obsession. People keep fit in lots of ways. Swimming, jogging and aerobics are amongst the commonest. Keeping fit is about more than vanity. Doctors stress how important it is to combine exercise with a healthy diet. There has been something of a ‘health revolution’ in recent years but some people remain unconvinced. There are plenty of Rab C. Nesbitts and Jim Royles around. Paragraph about exercise, in terms of cohesion it is made up from a series of separate sentences. They could be rearranged without much loss of meaning. Maddy Barnes, 2012 Keeping fit is a contemporary obsession. It takes many forms, with swimming, jogging and aerobics amongst the commonest. However, keeping fit is more than vanity. Doctors stress how important it is to combine exercise with a healthy diet. Although there has been something of a ‘health revolution’ in recent years, some people remain unconvinced. Alas, there are still plenty of Rab C. Nesbitts and Jim Royles around. Various connectives between the sentences means that most have something which refers backwards and forwards, unfolding a relationship of meaning through the paragraph. Page 5