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I. Plants and the Colonization of the Land
A. An Introduction to the Plant Kingdom
1. Characteristics of Plants
a) ____________________________-Contain chlorophyll a & b, carotenes
b) ____________________________-cell walls contain cellulose
c) ____________________________-Nucleus, membrane bound organelles,
starch stored in plastids
2. A generalized View of a Plant Lifecyle
a) Alternating generations between a _________________________ which is
a diploid spore producing generation and a __________________________
which is a haploid gamete producing plant
b) All modern plants are __________________________- their sporophyte
and gametophyte generations differ in morphology
c) One main trend in evolution of plants is toward a reduction of the haploid
generation and the dominance of the diploid generation
Sperm
In Water
Zygote
Egg
Spores
B. Major Events in Plant Evolution
1. Non-vascular plants evolved from green algae. Therefore, non-vascular
plants must have adaptations that allow water-dwelling algae to overcome
the problems of living on land and to best utilize the resources available
there.
2. Moving onto land caused plant cells to dehydrate and the following
structures evolved to reduce water loss
a) _____________________________- waxy layer that prevents
evaporation from plant tissues above ground
b) _____________________________- openings through the waxy layer
that allows gas exchange
c) _____________________________- protective jacket of cells that
prevent the gamete from dehydrating
d) _____________________________- epidermal cells with elongated
regions to anchor the plant and provide surface area for water absorption
e) _____________________________- material embedded in cellulose to
strengthen it
3. Development of __________________________________- tissues that
conduct water and minerals allowed plants to grow tall
a) ________________________- dead cells that conduct water
b) _________________________- living cells that conduct sugars, amino
acids and other nutrients
4. Reduced _______________________________ generation allows the
_______________________________ to protect the gametophyte from
drought, UV radiation and provide it with nutrients
5. Production of ____________________ allows the male gametophyte to be
protected by a tough coat of cells and can transport the sperm though the air.
Pollen replaced swimming sperm
6. Origin of the ________________- plant embryo packaged with nutrients.
7. The emergence of _____________________________- flowing plants that
have protective coats on their seeds and reproductive organs (flowers) that
aid pollination
II. ____________________________
Multicellular, Eukaryotic and Autotrophic
__________
____________
____________
Water Dwelling
Land dwelling mosses,
liverworts, hornworts
Have Vascular tissue
Lack vascular tissue
_____________
___________________
__________: ____________: ____________: ___________:
Lack roots
(have rhizoids),
and have no
leaves. Ex.
Whisk ferns
Lack roots and
have small leaflike structures
called microphyls.
Ex. Horse tails
Lack roots and
have small leaflike structures
called microphyls
Ex. Clubmosses
have fronds
(macrophyls) and
rhizomes (underground stem for
water absorption)
Ex. Fern
Seed Producing
________________:
Have true roots,
stems, leaves, pollen
and seeds without a
seed coat. Ex.
Conifers and
Evergreens
________________:
True roots, stems,
leaves, flowers,
fruits and seeds with
seed coats. Ex.
Flowering Plants
III. Angiosperm Anatomy and Physiology
A. Kinds of Plant Tissue
1. ________________________- One of two types of plant tissue capable of carrying on
mitosis
a) ___________________________- tissues near the tip of the root responsible for
downward growth
b) _________________________________- tissue near the tip of a stem that produces
upward growth
c) The lengthening of the roots and stems is called __________________________
d) Cell produced by the meristem are all alike until they go through
________________________. This process converts them to specialized tissues:
Epidermis, Vascular and ground tissue
2. __________________________-tissue responsible for _____________________- the
widening of roots and stems
3. ______________________- outermost layer of cells that develop into a protective layer
that produces _____________________- waxy material that prevents water loss
4. _________________________________- tissue that transports food and water
A) _________________- dead hollow cells that transport water and provide strength
B) _________________- tissue that transports food (glucose)
5. _____________________________- tissues for the storage of food and the protection of
vascular tissue
a) ____________________________- food storage cells
b) __________________________ - cells that determine what enter the vascular
tissue
B. Angiosperm Organs
1. Roots
a. Functions
1) ___________________________________________________________________
2) ___________________________________________________________________
3) ___________________________________________________________________
b. Root Morphology (external structure)
1) ____________________________- one large vertical root. Found in many dicots
and provides firm anchorage. Can be modified to store a large amount of food
2) ____________________________- highly branched, thin root. Provides a large
area for water and mineral absorption. Found in many monocots
3) ____________________________- arise from the stem and leaves
c. Root Growth, Longitudinal and Cross Section Structure
1) ____________________________________________- Cells become different
tissues. (Outer cells become epidermis. Inner cells become vascular tissue and
the cells in between become cortex)
2) ____________________________________________- cells become full sized and
drive the root cap downward into the soil
3) ____________________________________________- root meristem is here.
Contains quiescent center
4) ____________________________- protects inner cells from damage. The
smashed cells produce a slimy coat that helps ground penetration
d. Cross Section of a Root
1) __________________________- protection of the inner cells
2) __________________________- increase surface area for water absorption
3) __________________________- food storage
4) __________________________- food transport
5) __________________________- water transport
2. Stems
a. Functions
1) ___________________________________________________________________
2) ___________________________________________________________________
b. Stem Morphology
1) Herbaceous Stems
a) Soft, green and fleshy with little or no secondary growth
b) Stem is supported by the water that fills their central vacuoles called
____________________________ and the slight lignification of their cell walls
2) Woody Stems
a) Most dicots and gymnosperms produce woody stems which are hard and long
b) Woody stems have a ________________________________ that allows for
_________________________________ (width)
c) The _________________________________ adds phloem cells towards the
outside and xylem cells to the inside
d) The xylem added each year forms the tree rings
e) The xylem that conducts water is called ______________________________
f) The older, non-functioning xylem in the middle is _______________________
g) Woody stems have a __________________________________ which fills in
the gaps in the bark caused by the yearly addition of xylem
f) Bark is not air tight, gaps called ______________________ allow gas exchange
c. Structure of Stems
1. In the stem, the vascular tissues are arranged into groupings called _____________
_________________
a) _____________________- vascular bundles are in a random order
b) ____________________-vascular bundles are arranged in a ring between the
_____________ and the _______________________
2. Buds and branches
a) Buds protect the ______________________________from freezing and drying
during the winter
b) Buds develop in the _____________ and consist of 3 basic parts:
1)______________________________
2) ______________________________
3) ______________________________
c) _________________________- protect the meristem in the winter. When the
bud absorbs water in the spring, it swells and the scales fall off leaving scars
d) _____________________________________: at the end of stems
e) ________________________________: project from the sides of stems
f) The distance between bud scale scars is called an ________________________
which equals one year
g) _____________________________________- the presence of a terminal bud
inhibits the auxillary buds
3. Modified Stems
a) __________________________- horizontal stem growing along the surface of
the ground. Ie. Strawberries
b) ________________________- horizontal stem underground. Ie Irises and Irish
potatoes
c) __________________- vertical underground shoots with leaves modified for
food storage. Ie. Onion
3. Leaves
a. Function: organs that have the ability to make food (glucose) in ____________________
b. Structure of the leaf
1. ___________________________- waxy layer that prevents water loss
2. ___________________________- major photosynthetic layer
3. ________________________________- protects underlying cells and secretes cuticle
4. ___________________________- organelle responsible for photosynthesis
5. ___________________________- allow gas exchange and moves food to phloem
6. _______________________________- protection, contain stomates for gas exchange
7. ___________________________- flank stomates and open and close them
8. ___________________________- gap through which air actually passes
9. ____________________________- carries food
10. ____________________________ - carries water
11. ____________________________- holds xylem and phloem
C. Transport in Vascular Plants
1. Transport at the Cellular Level
a) _______________________________- doesn’t require cellular energy input
1) ____________________________- solutes move down the concentration gradient
from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
2) _______________________________________- protein form selective channels to
allow specific solutes through the membrane
3) ____________________________ - the diffusion of water from areas of high water
potential to low water potential
b) _________________________________- requires energy input form the cell
1) _________________________________- embedded in the cell membrane bind to a
specific substrate, change conformation and release the substrate on the other side of
the membrane
2) __________________________________ - hydrolyze ATP and use the energy to
pump protons across membrane to create an electrochemical gradient
•
Cations will be driven into the cell by membrane potential
•
Anions are accumulated by the cell through cotransport with hydrogen ions
2. Short Distance (Lateral) Transport
a) ______________________________- out of one cell through the cell membrane and cell
wall into the next cell through the cell membrane and cell wall
b) ____________________________- a continuum of cytoplasm within the plant formed by
____________________________- cytoplasmic channels formed through pores in the
cell wall
c) _____________________________- the extracellular pathway between cell walls
3. Pathway of Water and Minerals
a) Water and dissolved solutes gain access to the roots through root hairs with hydrophilic
cell walls
b) Water and minerals enter apoplastic routes; however, the entrance to the stele is blocked
by a ring of was called the _______________________ which lies tangential to the stele
c) Minerals must be extracted from the extracellular fluid into ________________________
and follow a symplastic pathway into the stele
d) Therefore, the endodermal cells regulate the composition of the sap
4. Transpiration-Cohesion-Tension Mechanism
a) ______________________________- water evaporates out of the leaf through the
stomate. This causes water to leave the cells surrounding the air spaces in the leaf.
b) The _____________________, or negative pressure causes water to move from the xylem
in the leaf petiole to the cells.
c) ______________________________- hydrogen bonding between water molecules pulls
water up the stem from the root to replace water lost by the leaf
d) ______________________________- water molecule clings to xylem cell walls which
prevents back flow due to gravity.
e) _______________________________- water is pushed up the root xylem tubes as water
enters the root hairs
f) Plants can regulate transpiration by opening or closing ____________________
5. Control of Transpiration (Plants strike a balance between gas exchange and water loss. When
stomates are open, both gas exchange and water loss are greatest)
a) ____________________ flank stomata and control stomatal diameter by changing shape
1) When turgid, guard cells buckle due to microfibrils. This causes the stomate to open
2) When flaccid, guard cells sag and close stomate
b) Change in turgor pressure is accomplished by the uptake of ________________________
1) Uptake of potassium lowers water potential causing water to enter
2) Closing occurs when potassium ions leave
c) Stomates open at dawn because:
1) __________________ induces guard cells to uptake potassium due to the activation
of a light receptor which activates proton pumps in the plasma membrane
2) Decrease in ____________________________ in the leaf air space due to
photosynthesis in the mesophyll
3) ____________________________ in the guard cells
d) Guard cells will close if:
1) _______________________ deficiency results in flaccid guard cells
2) Production of _____________________________ by mesophyll cells
3) ___________________________ increases carbon dioxide in the leaf air space due to
increased respiration
6. Transport in Phloem
a) _________________________- process of transporting sugar from a source to a sink
through phloem
1) ____________________- sugar producing cells
2) _______________- cell requiring sugar
b) Loading sugar from a source
1) Sugar may be loaded via the _________________________
2) _______________________ can actively load sugar against the concentration
gradient
c) Increased sugar concentration lowers water potential which causes water from the
surrounding tissues to enter the phloem
d). The resulting increase in pressure drives the sap to the sink cell. This is called
______________________
IV. Nutrition in Plants
A. Nutrition Requirements in Plants
1. __________________- the most abundant compound in most plants is an essential nutrient
for photosynthesis
2. _________________________- is incorporated into a plants organic material
3. _____________________- (inorganic ions) are selectively absorbed by the roots
4. __________________________ are needed in large amounts
5. _________________________- are needed in small quantities
B. Nitrogen Assimilation in Plants
1. Plant growth and crop yield are often limited by ____________________, an essential
ingredient of proteins and nucleic acids
2. Although the atmosphere is rich in nitrogen, plants require the assistance of bacteria living
in soild to supply them with the forms of nitrogen they need
a) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria posses ________________________ an enzyme that converts
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia
b) The ammonia is then converted to nitrate or ammonium, which can be used by the plant
3. The roots of ________________________ have nodular swellings that house the nitrogenfixing bacteria
4. Improving the quality and quantity of protein crops and can help alleviate the problem of
human malnutrition
5. Agricultural research in developing protein-rich plants and enhancing nitrogen-fixing
capabilities may yield practical benefits to the world
C. Some Nutritional Adaptations in Plants
1. ________________________________- either supplement their photosynthetic nutrition
or give up photosynthesis entirely by tapping the vascular system of the host plant
2. _____________________________- usually found in poor soil or acid bogs. Obtain
nitrogen by killing and digesting insects
3. ______________________________- mutualistic associations between root and fungi
help the plant by enhancing mineral nutrition, water absorption and disease resistance