Download 1. The grammar of academic prose Academic prose is used to build

1. The grammar of academic prose
Academic prose is used to build a generally true argument in which the agent is unimportant, and the
writers usually suppress their own personal feelings. Therefore passive verbs, which diminish the role of the
researcher, are ten times more frequent than in conversation. They make up 25% of all finite verbs in
academic prose. High level of prepositions and determiners, very low level of adverbial particles. Long and
complex phrases, which along with high use of nominalised words, derived adjectives and copula be results
in low use of lexical verbs. Prepositional phrase postmodifiers preferred over relative clause postmodifiers.
Classifiers, such as basic and general are used significantly more in academic prose than in other registers.
A large range of predicative adjectives, such as equal, essential and possible, due to the use of copula be,
but attributive adjectives are used more frequently. Other copular verbs, such as became, appear, and
remain also frequent. Causative verbs, such as cause, enable, allow, very frequent. Very wide range of
verbs, most common verbs in English used less.
Phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs extremely rare, single word verbs are preferred. However,
prepositional verbs such as be based on are common and some phrasal verbs such as carry out are used.
Can and may are most frequent modal verbs in academic prose and are often used to mark logical
possibility. Must and should are used for expressing logical necessity.
Present tense used to show that a proposition is true regardless of time. Also used to present previous
research, e.g. Haikala(1975) suggests that...Present perfect is often used to state that earlier findings or
practices continue to be valid.
Whose for inanimate objects and of which are especially common in academic prose. Lexical bundles of
type noun + of-phrase are used repeatedly in Academic prose.
2. Adverbials
Adverbial is one of the clause elements and not always required. It tells something about the sentence or
the verb it modifies. Some verbs take an adverbial in order to complete their meaning and the grammatical
structure of the clause. This is known as an obligatory adverbial. They can occur in either copular pattern
(SVA) or complex transitive pattern (SVDOA). Adverbial occur most often in clauses as optional elements
regarding clause structure, and there can be several in a clause to convey information such as place, time,
manner, extent and attitude. Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, noun phrases and clauses can
function as adverbials.
Can be divided into three classes. Circumstance adverbial is by far the most common and adds information
about the verb such as time, manner and place: The robbers were heavily armed. Stance adverbial conveys
the speakers or writers comments on the truth value of the clause, on the style or form of the
communication or his attitude toward the content of the clause: His car conveniently ran out of petrol.
Linking adverbials connect stretches of texts: Therefore, however. Adverbials can occur in initial position,
medial position and final position, which is by far the most common position.
Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials include place (distance direction, position), time (point in
time, duration, frequency), process (manner, means), contingency (cause, purpose, condition), degree
(amplifier, diminisher), addition/restriction and recipient.
3. Complement clauses
Complement clauses are dependent clauses that complete the meaning of a verb, adjective or noun. They
are also called nominal clauses, as they often occupy a noun phrase slot in a clause (S O OP SP). There are
four major types of complement clauses: that-clauses and wh-clauses are finite complement clauses,
whereas to-clauses and ing-clauses are non-finite complement clauses. The types can be distinguished by
their complementiser, the word that begins the complement clause.
That-clauses are finite and marked for tense and modality and have a subject. They are often postpredicate type. The complementiser that may also be left out without changing the structure of the clause.
Wh-clauses begin with a wh-word, including how, and are finite clauses and show tense and modality and
have a subject. Wh-clause types include interrogative (verbs such as ask and wonder), nominal relative
(function like noun phrases) and exclamative clauses.
To-clauses are infinite and cannot have tense or modals, usually do not have a subject. In most cases the
assumed subject is the subject of the main clause. Ing-clauses are non-finite and have an ing-participle as
their main verb form. Bare-infinitive clauses have an infinitive verb form but lack to: Mom said you would
help clean the room. Ed-complement clauses are rare.
There are three major grammatical positions for complement clauses: subject (pre-predicate), postpredicate and extraposed, which is an alternative to subject position. Subject position is possible for
complement clauses controlled by a verb or an adjective: What is good for the goose is good for the gander.
All complement clause types can occur after the word that controls them, which is the post-predicate
position. They can function as direct object (following a transitive verb), subject predicative (following a
copular verb) or an adjective complement (following a predicative adjective): I are what you eat.
Complement clauses rarely occur in subject position, instead extraposed clauses are usually used to express
an equivalent meaning. The grammatical place of subject is filled with it and the complement clause occurs
after the predicate: It is funny how often people do that.
4. Dependent clauses
Dependent clauses are clauses that cannot stand alone without the main clause, to which they are linked
with subordinators. There are three major subclasses for subordinated clauses: adverbial clauses, which
add details of time, place reason etc. to the main clause; degree clauses, as, than, that; complement
clauses, if, that, whether.
Finite dependent clauses are marked for tense or modality and often have an overt link to the main clause,
starting with a subordinator or a wh-word. Non-finite clauses have no tense or modal verb, they usually
have no overt link, but the non-finite verb form itself signals that the clause is subordinate: Sitting up, he
was prepared to meet the visitors.
COMPLEMENT CLAUSES READ ABOVE
Adverbial clauses are used as adverbials in the main clauses. They are normally optional elements and can
be placed either at the initial, medial and final positions in the main clause. They are introduced with a
subordinator, such as if, before, although. They usually belong to circumstance adverbials and express
meanings like time, reason and condition. Relative clauses are postmodifiers in a noun phrase, and serve to
expand the meaning and specify the reference of the head noun. It is introduced by a relativiser (relative
pronouns who,whom, which,whose, that and relative adverbs where, when and why). Comparative clauses
are complements in an adjective phrase or an adverb phrase, with a gradable word as head. He arrived
later than he had promised. Peripheral clauses include reporting clauses (... ,she said) and tag clauses,
which are used to reinforce the message (You're a good boy you are)
5. Non-finite clauses
Non-finite dependent clauses are more compact and less explicit than finite clauses There are four major
types of non-finite clauses: infinitive clauses (to-clauses), ing-clauses, ed-participle clauses and verbless
clauses. Infinitive clauses can be S, extraposed S, SP, DO, OP, A, noun complement (Choose the goat to be
sacrificed, my son), noun postmodifier (He is a man to be watched carefully) and part of an adjective
phrase.
Ing-clauses also have a wide range of syntactic roles: S, extraposed S, SP, DO, A, complement of
preposition, noun postmodifier and part of an adjective phrase. Ed-participle clauses are less versatile: DO,
A, noun postmodifier.
Supplement clauses are more loosely attached to the main clause and can be considered a peripheral type
of adverbial clause. They occur mostly in written registers, where they are usually marked off by a comma:
Considered a peripheral type of adverbial clause, supplement clause is more loosely attached to the main
clause). Information in a supplement clause is marked as background information. They can be ing-clauses
or ed-clauses and also verbless clauses.
Verbless clauses are a special type of non-finite clause. A common sign of a verbless clause is the ellipsis of
the verb be and the subject. E.g. when in doubt can be decompressed as when you are in doubt.
6. Object
Object is a major clause element and occurs in clauses that have a transitive verb. Monotransitive (SVO),
ditransitive (SVIODO) and complex transitive patterns (SVDOOP, SVDOA) contain direct objects, and the
ditransitive pattern contains also an indirect object placed between the verb and the DO. DO is usually
placed immediately after the verb in a clause and denotes the entity affected by the action or process of
the verb. IO follows a ditransitive verb such as give and tell and marks the recipient. A typical object is a
pronoun, noun or noun phrase, but complement clauses (to, that, ed, ing), interrogative clauses and free
relative clauses can also act as direct objects whereas only finite clauses can act as indirect objects.
7. Passive
8. Prepositions and prepositional phrases
9. Pronouns
10. That in English grammar
11. Expressing stance
12. Subject
13. Valency
Verbs determine the other clause elements. E.g. main verb go does not accept a direct object, but it can be
followed by an adverbial.