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STAR Biology Study Guide 1. DNA RNA Protein Synthesis The physical form of DNA has a Double Helix shape. DNA is composed of 4-nucleotide bases Adenine A-T * Thymine Guanine G-C Cytosine RNA is also composed of 4-nucleotide basesAdenine A-U * Uracil Guanine G-C Cytosine Central dogma (idea) of biology: DNA RNA Protein Protein = chain of amino acids DNA (instructions: code) - Transcription DNA mRNA mRNAcodons (3 nucleotide bases = 1 amino acid) Example: ATAGCGTCA UAU/CGC/AGU - Translation tRNA (anticodons) carries amino acid to mRNA @ribosome mRNA (codons) @ ribosome rRNA ribosome: controls reading frame (3 bases) Protein = a chain of amino acids Tyr-Arg-Ser Variety: The number and sequence (order) of the amino acids. Note: You will be given a mRNA chart in order to find the amino acids that match with the mRNA codons (UAU). * A mutation is a change in an organisms DNA. Mutations are naturally occurring events. * Genetic Manipulation Genetic Engineering. GMO. Transgenic organisms. Scientists insert genes (DNA) into organisms. Transformation. DNA Replication: DNA makes an exact copy of itself before cell division. chromatin chromatids (S phase of cell cycle) o DNA unwinds and unzips: helicase o Free nucleotides pair up according to the base pair rule: A-T G-C o DNA polyermase o Semi-conservative replication 2. Genetics Genetics is the study of heredity. Alleles are different versions of the same gene on homologous pairs. For example, all humans have genes that determine eye color. Each color is a different allele. Every individual has two alleles for each gene (pair). One from their mother and one from their father. Alleles = genes for a trait / eye color: B = Brown eyes dominant b = blue eyes recessive Genotype (Gene pair) Phenotype (Physical Appearance) BB- Homozygous Dominant Brown eyes bb- Homozygous Recessive Blue eyes Bb- Heterozygous (hybrid) Brown eyes What percent of the offspring will have blue eyes when you cross a heterozygous individual with a homozygous recessive individual? Bb (heterozygous) x bb (homozygous recessive) Draw a punnett square. B b b b Possible Gametes: If parent diploid cell 2n = TtYy Then gametes (n): Sex Determination: Male: XY sperm: either X or Y Female: XX egg: always X Sex Linked Traits: X-linked Genes are carried on the X chromosome. Female: XX (can be a carrier) male: XY has only one X, disoder more likely to be in phenotype 3. Evolution: change / time Natural Selection (Survival of The Fittest) (Darwin):Those best adapted for their environment will survive and reproduce. Those least suited for their environment will die faster and leave less offspring (children): DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION Natural selection = a major force that drives evolution. Adaptation- Phenotypic feature or trait that improves an organism’s likelihood of survival and reproduction. Example- Humans have opposable thumbs which allow us to grip objects better than other animals. Speciation- The formation of a new species. Speciation is a result of Geographic Isolation and Reproductive Isolation of a certain species. Speciation: NEW SPECIES EVOLVE BUT there are PRE-ZYGOTIC & POST ZYGOTIC reproductive BARRIERS. Proof of evolutiono Fossil record Sedimentary rock Fossil = A piece of organism or imprint left behind. Fossils show that species have changed over time. o Vestigial structures Body structures that have shrunken and are not used anymore. Example- Tail bone in humans. o Homologous structures Structures that share a common ancestry and look/behave similarly. Example- Human and whale bone structure. o Embryology Comparing development. o DNA homology (similarities in DNA sequences) Comparing DNA sequences. Human DNA is 99% the same as chimpanzee DNA. o Artificial selection: MAN selects. NOT environmental factors. Humans select for traits they want . For example- Humans breed dogs and horses to get traits they desire. 4. Cell Biology ALL cells have which structures? Draw Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus These cells contain no membrane bound organelles. These cells are simple and not complex. Example- Bacteria cells are prokaryotic. Draw: Eukaryotic Cells: Nucleus + membrane bound organelles. These cells are very complex. Example- Plant and Animal cells are Eukaryotic. Cell Organelles: 1. Nucleus: Located near the center of the cell: DNA . DNA = instructions to make proteins (chain of amino acids) Transcription 2. Mitochondria: “Power house of the cell”. Cell energy = ATP is produced: aerobic cellular respiration. 3. Lysosome: molecules and wastes are chemically broken down / so they can be recycled. 4. Ribosome: proteins are made = site of protein synthesis translation 5. Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis in plant cells. 6. Rough and smooth ER: Transports molecules within the cell. ribosomes makes proteins detox & makes carbs and lipids 7. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies molecules to make them functional (able to work), packages, ships. 8. Cell (plasma) membrane: Controls transports in and out of cell / homeostasis Passive transport: H L diffusion, osmosis No cell energy needed Down the concentration gradient Active transport L H uses cell energy ATP to pump Up the concentration gradient Semi-permeable = Allows selected molecules to enter and leave the cell. Osmosis: Solutions / cell Isotonic hypotonic hypertonic What is the difference between plant and animal cells? Plant cells have the following organelles that animal cell don’t have1. Cell wall 2. Chloroplasts (contain chlorophyll which trap sunlight for photosynthesis) Cell Theory: A cell is the fundamental unit of life. All life is made of one or more cells. Viruses: are not cells and cannot make proteins with out a host cell. CELL Cycle: Cell Division: PMAT & cytokinesis Types of Cell Division: mitosis and meiosis Mitosis: Asexual / Identical cells produced = clones. Occurs in all cells except for reproductive cells such as sperm and eggs. Growth and repair are by mitosis 2n 2n Meiosis- Sexual / Variety. Produces four haploid reproductive cells. Meiosis occurs in the testes of males and ovaries of females. Reduction Division: 2n n Diploid cells 2n: Chromosomes come in Homologous PAIRS. Cells with the full amount genetic material.= genome. Example- Human diploid cells 2n = 46 chromosomes. Haploid cells n: Cells with half the amount of genetic material. One member of each pair. Example- Human haploid cells n = 23 chromosomes. 5. Physiology: Human Body’s Major Systems: 1. The circulatory system- is the body's transport system. It is made up of a group of organs that transport blood throughout the body. The heart pumps the blood and the arteries and veins transport it. The blood, which no longer contains oxygen and nutrients, then goes back to the heart through veins. 2. The digestive system- is made up of organs that break down food to small, soluble molecules (monomers): proteins amino acids, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates sugars, and fats (lipids). Nutrients which the body needs for energy, growth, and repair. Digestion absorption into the circulatory system all body cells. 3. The respiratory system- Gas Exchange by diffusion H L: O2 in / CO2 out. Includes nose, and tubes: trachea / bronchi, and lungs: alveoli = air sacs. Gas Exchange. (blood vessels wrap around air sacs for exchange) 4. The endocrine system-is made up of a group of glands that produce the body's long-distance messengers, or hormones. Hormones are chemical signals that control body functions, such as metabolism, growth, and sexual development. 5. The immune system- is our body's defense system against infections and diseases. Cells of the immune system- B cells (produce antibodies), T cells, and macrophages. 6. The nervous system- is made up of neurons in the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves. One of the most important systems in your body, the nervous system is your body's control system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses throughout the body. 7. The muscular system- is made up of tissues that work with the skeletal system to control movement of the body. Some muscles— like the ones in your arms and legs—are voluntary, meaning that you decide when to move them. Other muscles, like the ones in your stomach, heart, intestines and other organs, are involuntary. The body is made up of three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle tissues. 9. The skeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments and tendons. It shapes the body and protects organs. The skeletal system works with the muscular system to help the body move. Marrow, which is soft, fatty tissue that produces red blood cells, many white blood cells, and other immune system cells, is found inside bones. All these systems work together to maintain homoeostasis(balance). 6. Ecology: Ecosystems Interactions: biotic / abiotic Energy Pyramid: Trophic levels = community 10% Law of Energy Transfer o Constant Input of energy is required o Materials Cycling: Geochemical Cycles: o Carbon o Nitrogen o Water Relationships: Symbiotic: ++ +0 +- Predator / prey Social Limiting factors Range of Tolerance Biodiversity Ecological Succession: change in the community in an area over time. Continues until a climax community = stable ecosystem * Primary succession: Rock soil building -- pioneer organisms (lichen) … grasses … shrubs. Secondary succession: a disaster occurred (fire.) soil present grasses … Order of succession in the population of an area starts off with simple organisms then over time the organisms become more complex. Photosynthesis: (autotrophs only) o H2O + CO2 C6H12O6 (food) + O2 (waste / air) Respiration: ALL cells / ALL the time o C6H12O6 + O2 36 ATP (energy) + waste: H2O + CO2 o Glycolysis (cytoplasm) Aerobic (mitochondria) 1. Scientific Method: OBSERVATION 1st Hypothesis Experiment (control & variable). In an experiment, the length of study is often an unavoidable source of experimental error. 2. People with HIV contract infections that are rare in the rest of the population because people with HIV are unable to fight off these infections with their weak immune system. (HIV attacks wbc: Helper T cells) 3. Vaccines- promote the production of antibodies by white blood cells.