Download 2.2 Semiotics

CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter contains the theoretical concept needed for the analysis. The
purpose of this chapter is to support the analysis of problem formulation on the
previous chapter. This chapter will analyze the concept of women that appear in
advertisements, and give the definition which relate with the topic.
In order to analyze this paper, this theoretical framework include: (1)
Advertising, which includes Types of Advertising; (2) Theory of Advertising, which
includes Types of Advertising, Television Advertisement and Image of Woman in
Television; (3) Semiotics, which includes Keys of Figures in semiotics, Semiotics by
Roland Barthes and Semiotics in Advertisement.
2.1
Advertising
Based on Angela Godard (1998, p. 6) the word 'advertisements' is the Latin
verb of 'advertere', meaning 'to turn towards'. While it is true that advertising are text,
picture, sound, that do their best to get audience attention, to make the audience turn
towards them. Danesi (2002, p. 179) said that “advertisement designates any type or
form of public announcement or representation intended to promote the sale of
specific commodities or services.”
Walles, Burnett, and Moriarty (2006, p. 5) defined advertising as paid
persuasive communication that uses non personal mass media – as well as other
forms of interactive communications – to reach broad audiences to connect an
identified sponsor with a target audience. In the other meaning advertising uses mass
media to promote their products or service and to influence the audience. The
advantage of using advertising is the ability in reaching masses of geographically
scattered buyers, and it enables the seller to repeat a message many times.
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The functions of advertising according to Wells, Burnett, and Moriarty (1992,
p. 15) are:
1. Provides product and brand information. Providing the consumer with
relevant information that will add decision making.
2. Provides incentives to take action. Give consumer reasons to switch brands.
Convinience, high quality, low price, warranties, etc. Might be stressed in
advertising.
3. Provides reminders and reinforcement. Constantly remind the consumer
about the name, benefits and value.
In other words, the main function of advertising is to give the information about
the new product and persuade audience to buy and use the product.
2.1.1
Types of advertising
According to Trehan (2006, p. 97). There are various types of advertising
media. These various types of media can be grouped under the following heads.
First, print media, it consists of the newspapers, magazine and journals. Second,
broadcast media, it consists of television and radio. Third, outdoor or mural
advertising media, it consist of several advertising, neon-signboards, posters, vehicle
advertising, sky advertising, sticker, sandwich man, banner, and wall painting. Forth,
direct mall advertising media, it can be divided in seven kinds of advertisement, such
as leaflets or pamphlets, circulars, catalogues, booklets and brochures, folders,
business reply card and personal letters. Fifth, internet advertising, that can be
divided in five kinds of advertisement, which is World Wide Web page, banner ads,
e-mail, skyscrapers and business to business network. And last, other types of
advertising media that can be seen in other media, such as film advertising, window
display, interior display, exhibitions and trade shows, tele-advertising, videoadvertising and last, yellow pages advertising.
2.1.2
Television Advertisement
The commercial became even more influential as a vehicle for disseminating
advertising messages throughout society with the advent of television in the early
1950s. TV commercials of the day became instantly familiar creating a perception of
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the product as being inextricably intertwined with the style and content of the
commercials created to promote it (Danesi, 2002, p. 182). By using television for the
media, advertisers use graphics, sight, sound, color, music, action, special effect and
various visual techniques to enhance the effectiveness of their messages. Because of
using those elements, which is graphics, audio, and various visual techniques,
television advertising is considered as the most powerful form of advertising. By
using audio-visual effect, impact of television advertisement is the advertisement is
deep on the minds of viewers and remembered for a long by viewers. Even it needs a
high-cost in doing television advertisement, but the producer still thinks that the best
way to shows and to tell their product it is from television (Trehan, 2006, pp. 101102)
2.1.3
Image of women in advertisement
Cortese (2004, p. 51) stated that “advertising has a great deal to say about
gender identity. Advertising use visual image of men and women to get audience
attention and persuade.” Advertisements are really projecting gender display—the
ways in which we think men and women behave—not the ways they actually behave.
Image it self is a concept or a thought of audience based on what they see in the
media. In other words, advertisement makes an image or picture of reality that does
not have to correspond to reality. Such portrayals or images that are not reflective of
social reality, for example, women are known as the second class, the subordinate,
and the sexual object.
According to Cortese (2004, p. 52) advertising image provide culturally
sanctioned ideal type of masculinity and femininity. Advertisers targeting women
consumer subscribe to very limited notions of what constitutes femininity (e.g.,
dependency, concern with superficial beauty, and nurturance). Advertisement also
gives a narrow ideal of femininity that they show, especially in beauty product ads.
The image of the ideal of the beautiful woman may perhaps be capture with the
concept of perfection. Regardless of product or service, woman displays youth which
is no wrinkles and lines, has a beautiful face or good looking, has a slim body, tall
and long-legged sexual seductiveness, and also perfection on her face, which is no
scars, no pimples, no pores and has a white skin. The attractiveness of the woman in
advertisement is only her attribute. And if women fail to attain it, women are led to
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feel guilty and ashamed. Cultural ideology also tells women that they will not be
desirable to, or loved by men unless they are physically perfect (Cortese, 2004, p.
53).
The advertisement tells the audience that the beauty that they shown in the
advertisement it can be only be achieved through the purchase of their beauty
products. Through the advertising, the minorities or the women who does not look
beautiful enough like already represented by advertisement will spend a huge amount
of money on cosmetics to get the perfection of beauty that stated in the
advertisement.
2.2
Semiotics
According to Chandler (2002, p. l), semiotics is about visual signs. The sign
can be drawings, paintings and photograph that also include words, sounds and body
language. The combination of picture and words can create sign that have same
interpretation in the reader’s mind in general. In Semiotics the Basics, Chandler
stated that semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign. Study
semiotics is not only everything that refers to sign but anything that represent
something else (p.2).
There are two different points of view about semiotics study. Firstly, it came
from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) and the American
philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1941). Saussure called 'semiology' was a
study about the role of signs as part of social life; while the fields of study for the
philosopher Peirce, it is called ‘semiotics’ was the common sign that related to logic.
Pierce and Saussure are the founders of the study of sign and well known as
semiotics study that developed by other work (Fiske, 2002, p. 40).
Semiotics is a study or analytical methods to assess the sign. The signs are the
devices that we use in an attempt to find our way in this world, in the midst of human
and together with human. The most important thing in semiotic is a sign. According
to Fiske (2002, p. 40), semiotic have three areas of learning; which are:
1. The sign itself. It is associated with a variety of different signs, such as how
to deliver the meaning and how to connect with the people that use it. The
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sign is made by people or human, so it can only be understood by those who
connect.
2. The codes or systems into which signs are organized. This study covers the
ways that a variety of codes have developed in order to meet the needs of a
society or culture, or to exploit the channels of communication available for
their transmission.
3. The culture which these codes and signs operate. This in turn is dependent
upon the use of these codes and signs for it is own existence and form.
Advertising is one of the mass media that there are a lot of signs in it. So the
semiotic analysis is the most appropriate analysis to find the hidden meaning in an
advertisement. Semiotics is not an exact science, because it is not literally contained
in the text or images on an ad (which is analyzed in this study) clearly.
2.2.1
The Key Figures of Semiotics
Charles Sanders Pierce was a major figure in Semiotics that comes from
America. The term semiotics was first introduced by Pierce. Pierce considers all
things that exist in this world are a symbol that definitely has a meaning. Pierce
divides symbol into three principal categories; icon, index and symbol. (Fiske, 2002,
p. 47)
Picture 2.1 from Fiske’s: Introduction to communication studies
1. Symbol/symbolic is a mode which the signifier does not refers to the
signified. It means that the concept not only refers to the meaning of sign
and the object, but also refers to the relation that must be learned to know
the sign and the meaning of sign, e.g. language in general (plus specific
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languages, alphabetical letters, punctuation marks, words, phrases and
sentences), numbers, Morse code, traffic lights, national flags.
2. Icon/iconic is a mode which the signifier is identifying the signified. It
means that the concept explanation describe the object that recognize
from looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling, e.g. realistic sounds
in ‘music programmed, sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film
soundtrack, imitative gestures.
3. Index/indexical is a mode which the signifier have directly connected to
the signified. It means that index signify sign as existing sign so it have
direct physical connection to the object, e.g. ‘natural signs’ (smoke,
thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odors and flavors) and medical
symptoms (pain, a rash, pulse-rate).
Second major figure of the famous philosopher and was instrumental in the
development of semiotic is Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss philosopher. Saussure
uses the term semiology with the meaning of "science that studies the life of signs
within society. Saussure's theory refers to value of sign depends on the concept
which the relation between the sign with the meaning of sign.
In Semiotics the Basics, Chandler (2002, p. 20) stated that Saussure's
original model of sign classified sign as 'signifier' and 'signified'. The Saussure
model is not study about the relation between the object and the name only,
but preferred to the relation between 'the concept' and 'sound pattern'. The
sound pattern refers to something physical or material element that represents the
object and the meaning of sign.
Picture 2.2 from Fiske’s: Introduction to communication studies
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'Signifier' is interpreted the material or physical thing of the sign that can
be seen, heard, touched, smelled or tasted like sound pattern. 'Signified' known
as the concept that refers to object. In other words, Signifier refers to the physical
aspects of a symbol, such as speech, image, and painting. While signified refers to
the mental aspect of the symbol. The relationship between the physical existence of
signs and mental concept means signification (Chandler, 2002, p.16). So,
signification is an attempt to give meaning to the world. Signifier without a signified
would not mean anything, because it cannot be a sign. Instead, signified may not be
delivered without a signifier.
Saussure introduce semiology through dichotomy a system of signs; signified
and signifier. This concept sees that meaning arises when there is an association
between signified and signifier. The sign is the unity of a signifier with the signified
(Barthes, 1983, p. 155). In other words, the signifier is the sound that is meaningful.
So signifier is the material aspect of language, i.e. what is said / heard and what is
written/read. The signified is the mental picture, thought, or concept. So the signified
is the mental aspect of the language.
2.2.2
Semiotics by Roland Barthes
The third figure that really important in semiotics is Roland Barthes. Roland
Barthes born in 1915; he was from a middle class family in Cherbourg and was
raised in the small town of Bayonne near the southwest side of the Atlantic coast of
France. Barthes known as a structuralism thinker that likes to practice linguistics and
Saussure's semiology.
Saussure uses the signified and signifier and Barthes uses the connotation and
denotation to give a meaning. Barthes uses denotation and connotation to describe
the levels of representation or levels of meaning (Chandler, 2002, p. 142). Barthes
refined his understanding of the relationship between the signifier, the signified and
myth by drawing a distinction between denotation and connotation (Strinati, 2004, p.
175).
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Picture 2.3 from Chandlers’: Semiotics the Basics
The first order of signification is that of denotation: at this level there is a
sign consisting of a signifier and a signified. Connotation is a second order of
signification which uses the denotative sign (signifier and signified) as its signifier
and attaches to it an additional signified. Connotation is a sign which derives from
the signifier of a denotative sign. A signified on one level can become a signifier on
another level. This is the mechanism by which signs may seem to signify one thing
but are loaded with multiple meanings (Chandler, 2002, p. 140). Barthes himself
later gave priority to connotation, stated in 1971 that it was no longer easy to
separate the signifier from the signified, the ideological from the “literal”.
In the framework of Barthesian cultural studies, myth, like connotation, can
be seen as a higher order of signification. Barthes stated that a myth is a culture's
way of thinking about something, a way of conceptualizing or understanding it.
Barthes thinks of a myth as a change of related concept. A myth is a story by which a
culture explains or understands some aspect of reality or nature. Primitive myth is
about life and death, men and gods, good and evil. Other myth is about masculinity
and femininity, about the family, about success, and science (Fiske, 2002, pp. 88-89).
Barthes argues that the main way myth work is to naturalize history. These
points up the fact the myth are actually the product of a social class that has achieved
dominance by a particular history. For example, there is a myth that women are
'naturally' more nurturing and caring than men, while the men, equally 'naturally', of
course plays the role of breadwinners. These roles then structure the most 'natural'
social unit of all-the family. By presenting these meanings as part of nature, myth
disguises their historical origin, which globally makes them appear not only
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unchangeable but also fair; it makes them appear to serve the interest of men and
women equally and thus hides their political effect (Fiske, 2002, pp. 89-90).
According to Barthes, semiotics does not just stop at the use of language like
semiotics earlier. Semiotics Barthes's models can reach Popular Culture (including
mass media) and can be used in all areas of social life. When dividing the media
messages, the messages in the form of connotative would create a myth. The second
of Barthes's three ways in which signs work in the second order in through myth
(Fiske, 2002, p. 87). Myth is not just the things that happen in everyday life such as
the legend or traditional story, but the myth is used as a reference that is used to
explain the symbols that exist with relation to culture and history. When we use the
myth to interpret a symbol, we have to match the existing history and culture.
2.2.2.1
Denotative Meaning
Barthes refers denotation as a common-sense, the obvious meaning of the
sign. For example, a photograph of a street scene detones that particular street; the
word “street” denotes an urban road lined with buildings. This photograph can be
taken into two different ways of photography. Those two photographs will have the
same denotative meaning. In other words, whatever the ways the photograph of a
street was taken, that photographs of the street will always denote that particular
street. It means, their denotative meaning would be the same (Fiske, 2002, p. 86)
Strinati (2004, p. 107) said the meaning of popular cultural signs is selfevident. They are what they are or what they appears to be, an advert, a photo of a
black soldier, a bunch of roses and so on. They denote something to audience; they
present it to us as a matter of fact: this is a photo of a soldier, an advert, a bunch of
roses. Denotation refers to those things which appear to us as natural and which
people can take for granted.
In other words, denotation can be called as a conceptual meaning, i.e.
meaning that according to observations by sight, smell, hearing, feeling and
everything that has to do with factual information and should be objective. The true
meaning or significance that is straightforward. The actual meaning in the dictionary
is not a figurative meaning.
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2.2.2.2
Connotative meaning
Barthes refers connotation to describe one of the three ways in which signs
work in the second order of signification. It describes the interaction between the
sign and the feelings or emotion of the users and the values of their culture.
Based on the example in denotation above, those two photographs are both of
the same streets. The difference between those photos lies in the form, the
appearance of the photograph, that is, in the signifier. By looking from those two
photographs, the difference between connotation and denotation is clear. Denotation
is the mechanical reproduction on film of the object at which the camera is pointed,
while connotation is the human part of the process. In other words denotation is what
is photographed; connotation is how it is photographed (Fiske, 2002, p. 86).
The connotations can thus be identified: this may appear to be a
bunch of roses but it connotes passion; or this may appear to be a
photo of a black soldier saluting the French flag, but it really
connotes the grandeur and impartiality of French imperialism.
(Dominic, 2004, p. 107).
So in other words, if people look at the rose, they have several meanings of
the rose based on the culture, and society. Someone who lives in the family who sells
rose, they can says that rose connotes passion, because they gives their live into rose
but for someone that fall in love, they can say that rose connotes love.
In other words connotation is a figurative meaning, not the true meaning. A word
may differ depending on culture, society, and dependent life and express their
particular community norms.
2.2.3
Semiotics in Advertisement
The first advertising texts of human civilization were the many outdoor signs
displayed above the shop doors of ancient cities of the Middle East. As early as 3000
BC, the Babylonians used such signs to "advertise the stores themselves. The ancient
Greeks and Romans also hung signs outside their shops. Since few people could
read, the merchants of the era used recognizable visual symbols carved in stone, clay,
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or wood for their signs (Danesi, 2002, p. 181) Time goes by, technology increasingly
intense, advertising involved developing, from newspaper ads, banners, radio, tv, and
even the Internet. People / producer makes advertising is to sell / introduce their
product to the public, so that the product is recognized and will be bought by
community. But now, the ads are not only created to sell a product or to introduce a
product. Advertising is often entered by the strategy of the people that concerned.
Ads can be used for force others to do things through the magic of the media; e.g.to
endorse a political candidate, to support a cause, and so on and so forth. Business
firms, political parties and candidates, social organizations, special-interest groups,
and governments. The ad was made in order to make the image of the "interest" to be
good (p. 179).
The principle of semiotics in advertisement is that advertising involves signs
and codes in every part either verbal; signs we can directly capture through language
that we are familiar, and non-verbal; through color, lighting, and presented in the
form of advertising.
To find a semiotics symbol in advertising, there are three elements that can be
used; color, and shooting techniques.
2.2.3.1 Color
Colors have such strong associations for a brand. People do not read Coca
Cola without thinking red color and see McDonald without picturing the yellow.
Color also has a psychological effect in people bodies. Reds make people jumpy,
green will calm, and lessen anger with pink. Colors have an important role in the
visualization of an advertisement; color can reinforce the impression on an
advertisement (Sutton, 2003)
Red
Excitement, power, passionate, energy, aggressive, danger,
desire
Pink
Romance, love, innocent, feminine, sensitive, kind, sweet
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Yellow
Happy, playful, optimistic, curiosity, loyal, idealism
Blue
Calm, trustworthy, pleasure-seekers, daydreamers, serious,
conservative
Gray
Noncommittal,
sad,
bored,
a
watcher
rather
than
participator, calm, professional
Green
Feel safe, generous with time, stubborn, youth, successful
Brown
Down to earth, dependable, loyal friend, comfort, hard
worker
Purple
Negotiator, strong desire, spiritual, empathy, arrogant,
intuition, ambition, miracle
Orange
Gregarious, dynamic, fun, flamboyant, happy, independent
Black
Mystery, formality, negative, sad, not happy, anger
White
Peace, complete, pure and also the power of perfection,
purety and innocence
Gold
Healthy,
concentration,
Succces,
achievment,
and
associated with luxury
2.2.3.2 The Composition of the Movie Shots.
According to Thompson (2009, p. 42) shot is the smallest unit in
photographic which covers person, action or event in a motion picture. A shot size
affects the storyline or the narrative and also the viewers’ response to it. Each frames
part of shot. A shot is a single setting or moment of action in a film, and it is may be
built either in limited number of frames or thousands of frames. The shots will give a
view of the characters’ movement related to the film’s purpose, facial expression,
feeling, emotions, the way they dress. All of those indicate their roles in the film.
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2.2.3.2.1 Long Shot
Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 10) the long shot (LS) is a more
inclusive shot. It frames much more of the environment around the person, object, or
action and often shows their relationships in physical space much better. As a result,
the environment may take up much more of the screen than the person or the object
included in the frame.
In other words, a long shot is a shot which gives the audiences a view of a
large thing, groups of things. It usually creates or sets up the setting of the movie,
because it shows the audiences about the when, where and who from the setting of
the movie.
2.2.3.2.2 Medium Long Shot
Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 15), a medium long shot is a shot
which cuts off a body part of the subject. The bottom of frame usually cuts off the
leg (or above the knee) of the subject. Besides, the subject also takes important parts,
because they show details in their clothing, gender and facial expressions.
2.2.3.2.3 Medium Shot
Thompson & Bowen (2009, p. 16) stated that the medium shot is a shot type
which gives a view of how we (as a human) normally see the environment around us.
A viewer will feel comfortable when see in the medium shot because they will feel
like a normal observation. A medium shot is a shot which shows the body of the
subject from the waist up. The gestures and their facial expressions can be visibly
seen by the audiences.
2.2.3.2.4 Medium Close-Up
Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 17), the medium close up is,
“Character’s facial are rather clear. An audience is supposed to be
watching the human face at this point in the framing so actions or
objects in the surrounding environment hold little to no importance.”
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In short, a medium close-up is a shot which focuses on the facial expression
of the character. The audiences will see mostly only the human face, and the actions
or objects around the main character are not the important points.
2.2.3.2.5 Close Up
According to Thompson and Bowen (2009), the close-up is the intimate shot.
It gives the audiences a specific view of some person, object or action, and it causes
the audiences to get detailed information. The close-up shot sometimes showing just
the head, hands, feet, or a small object. It emphasizes facial expression, the details of
a gesture, or a significant object.