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Unit: Digestive System and Nutrition Description: All organisms need various nutrients to survive. Humans obtain these nutrients by eating and drinking. The millions of cells that make up your body cannot travel to the food source so the food must be converted into usable forms and delivered. Foods and liquids must be broken down and delivered to the body to provide energy, building materials, metabolism regulators, and much more. This life-supporting job falls to the digestive system. The digestive system provides both the mechanical and chemical break down of food. This is followed by the absorption of nutrients by the body and any leftover, undigested waste is excreted from the body. The circulatory system transfers the absorbed nutrients to the rest of the body. Content Vocabulary: alimentary canal – a structure that extend from the mouth to the anus anus – outside and end opening of alimentary canal ascending colon – begins at cecum and continues upward bile – yellow-green liquid secreted from hepatic (liver) cells and contains bile salts, bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), cholesterol, and electrolytes bile salts – break fat globules into smaller droplets (emsulsification), and enhance absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins bolus – a mass of food mixed with saliva carbohydrates – include sugars and starches and provide main source of energy cecum – pouch-like structure at the beginning of large intestine which leads to rest of intestine of to appendix cellulose (fiber) – complex carbohydrate found in plant cell walls that humans cannot digest chime – mixture of food particles and gastric juice cholecystokinin – proteins and fats stimulate the intestinal wall to release this enzyme, which decreases gastric motility descending colon – follows the transverse section downward digestion – mechanical and chemical break down of foods, and the absorption of the resulting nutrients by cells duodenum – first 25 cm of small intestine epiglottis – a flap-like structure attached to larynx that closes off the trachea so that food does not enter it esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter – the thickened wall that prevents stomach contents from regurgitating into the stomach esophagus – a straight, collapsible tube about 25 cm long connecting the pharynx to the stomach essential nutrients – nutrients that the body cannot synthesize feces – undigested and unabsorbed materials; also includes water, mucus, shed intestinal cells, and bacteria gastric glands – found in stomach and secrete gastric juice gastric juice – includes mucus, digestive enzymes, intrinsic factor, and hydrochloric acid gastrin – a hormone released in stomach that stimulates secretory activity of gastric glands as well as cell growth in the stomach lining glycogen – a complex carbohydrate made from excess sugars in liver hepatic duct- transfer bile from liver into the small intestine ileocecal sphincter – distal end of small intestine where it joins the large intestine; opens to let chime pass into large intestine ileum – third and remaining section of the small intestine intestinal glands – found at the base of each villus; secrete enzymes like peptidases, sucrose, maltase, lactase, and lipase intestinal villi – tiny projections of the inner wall of the small intestine and greatly increase the surface area for absorption intrinsic factor – in gastric juice and helps aid in B12 absorption jejunum – second portion of small intestine and includes about 2/5 of total length lacteal – lymphatic vessel in each villus that helps carries nutrients to the body large intestine – larger in diameter than the small intestine; absorbs water and electrolytes from chyme and forms and stores feces lipids – include fats, oils, and steroids; provide energy and build cell membranes, liver – large, reddish-brown organ that has many functions; main digestive function is the production and secretion of bile macronutrients – required in large amounts (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) micronutrients – required in much smaller amounts (vitamins and minerals) minerals – inorganic elements essential for metabolism mouth – receives food and begins digestion mechanically; mixes food with saliva pancreas – an endocrine gland that secretes pancreatic juice pancreatic juice – contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates (pancreatic amylase), lipids (pancreatic lipase), nucleic acids (nucleases), and proteins (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase) and bicarbonate to neutralize acidity of chyme pepsin – most important gastric enzyme which breaks down protein (inactive form is called pepsinogen) peristalsis – wavelike movements that moves food down the canal pharynx – connects nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus proteins – composed of amino acids; serve as structural materials, function as enzymes, and provide energy pyloric sphincter – the thickened wall that controls gastric emptying into the small intestine rectum – attached to the sacrum and leads to anal canal and anus salivary amylase – enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch and glycogen salivary glands – secrete saliva; include the parotid, submadibular, and sublingual secretin – a hormone released in duodenum, which stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice sigmoid colon – the S-shaped section after the descending colon and ends in the rectum small intestine – tubular organ that extends from stomach to large intestine; completes digestion, absorbs products of digestion, and transports leftover residues to large intestine stomach – a J-shaped pouch and can hold about 1 liter or more; receives food from the esophagus, beings protein digestion, and carries on limited absorption transverse colon – begins after ascending and crosses the abdomen horizontally vitamins – organic compounds (other than the macronutrients) including fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble (B and C) Essential Questions: 1. What are the main functions and structures of the digestive system? 2. What are the functions of the mouth? 3. What are the functions of the salivary glands? 4. What are the functions of the pharynx and esophagus? 5. What are the functions of the stomach? 6. What are the functions of the pancreas? 7. What are the functions of the liver? 8. What is the function of the gall bladder? 9. What are the functions of the small intestine? 10. What are the functions of the large intestine? 11. What is nutrition and what nutrients are needed by the body? 12. What is the main function of carbohydrates? 13. What are the functions of lipids in the body? 14. What are the functions of proteins in the body? 15. What are the functions of vitamins and minerals in the body? Core Understandings: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Digestion mechanically and chemically breaks down food and absorbs the products. The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine) and several accessory organs (salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gall bladder). The mouth receives the food and begins digestion. Salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food, helps bind food particles, begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates, makes taste possible, and helps clean mouth. The pharynx and esophagus are important passageways. The stomach receives food, mixes it with gastric juice, carries on a limited amount of absorption, and moves food into the small intestine. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, which helps digest proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as neutralizes the acidic chime. The liver secretes bile. Bile contains bile salts, which emulsify fats and aid in the absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and certain vitamins. The gall bladder stores bile. The small intestine receives secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes nutrient digestion, absorbs products of digestion, and transports the residues to the large intestine. The large intestine reabsorbs water and electrolytes, and forms and stores feces. Nutrition is the study of nutrients and how the body utilizes them. The macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) are required in large amounts. The micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are needed in smaller amounts. Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy, which is obtained through the oxidization of glucose. Lipids supply energy and build cell membranes and steroids. Proteins serve as structural materials, function as enzymes, and provide energy. Vitamins and minerals have a variety of functions including roles in metabolism and enzyme activities. Unit: Cardiovascular System and Blood Description: The cardiovascular system is the major highway system of your body. Everything that your body requires or must get rid of has to use the cardiovascular system. Blood transports nutrients from the digestive system to all parts of the body. Oxygen is transported from the respiratory system to the body while carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood carries hormones, wastes destined for excretion, various cells, antibodies, and many different enzymes and chemicals. The blood moves through vessels, and of course, the heart keeps the blood moving. This one system has connections to all parts of the body! Content Vocabulary: ABO blood group – based on the presence or absence of two major protein markers or antigens on red blood cells agglutination – clumping of red blood cells following a transfusion reaction albumin – a plasma protein that helps maintain osmotic pressure antibodies – immune system “fighters” that react with antigens antigens – red-blood cell markers on the surface of the cell aorta – the largest artery; how blood leaves the left ventricle aortic valve – allows blood to leave the left ventricle and prevents back-flow arteries – strong, elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart arterioles – finer, branched vessels that carry blood away from the heart atrioventriuclar node (AV node) – specialized tissue in the septum between the atria; continues impulses received from SA node and send them down the AV-bundle AV bundle – large fibers that send electrical impulses down the septum to the Purkinje fibers to make the ventricles contract blood volume – the sum of the formed elements and plasma volumes in the vascular system; about 5 liters in adults capillaries – smallest-diameter vessels that have walls only one cell thick; location of all gas, wastes, and nutrients exchange between blood and tissues cardiac conduction system – coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle cardiac cycle – series of events that occur as the heart completes one heartbeat cardiac output – volume of blood discharged from the ventricle per minute cardiac veins – run roughly parallel to the coronary arteries and join the coronary sinus which dumps blood back into the right atrium coagulation – formation of a blood clot during hemostasis coronary arteries – supply blood to the tissues of the heart; their opening is just beyond the aortic valve coronary sinus – large vein on hearts posterior surface; empties the cardiac veins diastole – when ventricles contract and atria relax diastolic pressure – the lowest pressure that remains in the arteries after the ventricles relax Electrocardiogram (ECG) – a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle embolus – an abnormal clot that moves from where it was formed endocardium – thick middle layer of the wall of the heart; consists of mostly cardiac muscle tissue epicardium – outer layer of the wall of the heart; protects heart by reducing friction erythropoietin – a hormone that controls the rate of red blood cell formation fibrin – fibrous protein that forms blood clots; inactive form is called fibrinogen fibrinogen – a plasma protein that plays a role in blood coagulation (clotting) globulins – a group of plasma proteins that transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins and make up a type of antibody hemoglobin – a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen hemostasis – stoppage of bleeding when vessels are damaged inferior vena cava – large vein the brings blood back from lower body to right atrium left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from lungs left ventricle – pumps oxygenated blood to body macrophages – white blood cells that destroy damaged red blood cells primarily in the spleen and liver mitral valve (bicuspid) – between the left atrium and left ventricle; prevents back-flow myocardium – inner layer of the heart wall; consists of epithelial cells and connective tissue as well as the Purkinje fibers nonprotein nitrogenous substances – molecules that have nitrogen, but are not proteins (urea, uric acid, and amino acids) pericardium – sac-like structure that encloses the heart and the proximal ends of the large blood vessels to which it attaches peripheral resistance – friction between the blood and the walls of the vessels, which hinders blood flow plasma – liquid portion of blood plasma proteins – most abundant of dissolved substance in plasma platelets – not complete cells; fragments of larger cells that help to control blood loss prothrombin – a globulin that, when activated, is converted into thrombin pulmonary arteries – carry blood away from heart and to lungs pulmonary circuit – sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide pulmonary valve – allows blood to leave the right ventricle and prevents back-flow pulmonary veins – carry blood away from lungs and back to heart Purkinje fibers – branched fibers that continue the electrical impulses to the apex of the heart and throughout the ventricles red blood cells (erythrocytes) – biconcave discs that carry oxygen Rh blood group – includes several Rh antigens; the presence of any of these antigens makes blood Rh positive and the absence makes blood Rh negative right atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from body right ventricle – pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs septum – solid, wall-like structure that separates the right and left sides; prevents oxygenated blood from mixing with deoxygenated blood serum – clear, yellow liquid that remains after the blood clot is formed sinoatrial node (SA node) – specialized tissue in the cardiac muscle of the right atrium that initiates impulses to contract; often called the pacemaker stroke volume – volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with each contraction superior vena cava – large vein the brings blood back from upper body to right atrium systemic circuit – sends oxygenated blood and nutrients to all body cells and removes wastes systole – when atria contract and ventricles relax systolic pressure – the maximum pressure during ventricular contraction thrombin – catalyzes the reaction that activates fibrinogen into fibrin thrombus – a blood clot that abnormally forms in a vessel tricuspid valve – between the right atrium and right ventricle; prevents back-flow vasoconstriction – smooth muscle contractions reduce the diameter of vessels vasodilation – smooth muscle relaxation increases the diameter of vessels vasospasm – smooth muscle contraction that closes small vessels veins – carry blood back to heart; thinner walls, but greater diameter than arteries; contain valves to prevent back-flow venules – microscopic vessels that carry blood from capillaries to veins viscosity – the ease with which a fluid’s molecules flow past one another white blood cells (leukocytes) – protect against disease; include neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes Essential Questions: 1. What are the structures and functions of blood? 2. What are the functions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets? 3. What are the structures and functions of plasma? 4. What is the function of hemostasis? 5. How is blood typed? 6. What are the major structures and functions of the cardiovascular system? 7. What is the structure and main function of the heart? 8. What controls the cardiac cycle? 9. What the structures and functions of blood vessels? 10. What are the structures and functions of capillaries? 11. What is blood pressure? 12. What are the structures and functions of the pulmonary circuit? 13. What are the structures and functions of the arteriole system? 14. What are the structures and functions of the venous system? Core Understandings: 1. Blood is a type of connective tissue consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets suspended in a liquid, plasma, extracellular matrix. It transports substances between cells and the external environment, and helps maintain a stable internal environment. 2. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells protect and fight disease, and platelets help clot blood. 3. Plasma transports gases and nutrients, helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, and helps maintain stable pH. 4. Hemostasis is the stoppage of bleeding. 5. Blood can be typed on the basis of surface antigens and antibody reactions. 6. The cardiovascular system, consisting of heart and blood vessels, provides oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes wastes. 7. The heart has 4 chambers, and keeps oxygenated blood separate from deoxygenated blood as it pumps. 8. The cardiac cycle is controlled by electrical impulses as the atria and then ventricle contract. 9. Blood vessels form a closed circuit that carry blood from the heart through arteries to body cells and back again through veins. 10. Capillaries are where blood and tissue fluid exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts. 11. Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the insides of blood vessels. 12. The pulmonary circuit consists of vessels that carry blood to the lungs and back to the heart. 13. The arteriole system reaches to all parts of the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen. 14. The venous system returns blood to the heart from all parts of the body in order to deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs. Unit: Respiratory System Description: Cells require oxygen to break down nutrients to release energy and produce ATP (cellular respiration). In this process carbon dioxide is produced and must be excreted. Obtaining oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide is the main function of the respiratory system. The entire exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the cells is called respiration. The respiratory system also entraps particles from incoming air, helps to control temperature and water content of the air, produces vocal sounds, and participates in the sense of smell and regulation of blood pH. Content Vocabulary: alveolar ducts – very thin tubes leading to air sacs alveolar sacs – thin-walled outpouchings that lead to alveoli alveoli – microscopic air sacs where gas exchange occurs with blood bicarbonate ions – proved the most important mechanism for carbon dioxide transport in blood bronchial tree – branched airways leading from trachea to both lungs bronchioles – smaller tubes branching from the bronchi carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme in red blood cells that speeds the reaction between carbon dioxide and water epiglottis – flap-like structure that prevents food from going down the trachea expiration – exhalation expiratory reserve volume – during forced expiration, the volume of air beyond the resting tidal volume that leaves lungs hemoglobin – iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen inspiration – inhalation inspiratory reserve volume – during forced inspiration, the volume of air in addition to resting tidal volume that enters lungs larynx – enlarged area at the top of the trachea which houses the vocal cords lungs – soft, spongy cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity nasal cavity – hollow space behind the nose; has a mucous membrane that helps filter, warm and moisten the air nose – bone and cartilage that contain to nostrils that are open to the air paranasal sinuses – air-filled spaces in the bones of the skull that open into the nasal cavity parietal pleura – area of visceral pleura that is folded back and lines the inner wall of the pleural cavity partial pressure – the amount of pressure that each gas contributes to the total pressure pharynx – the throat; a passageway for food and air pleural cavity – potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura; it is filled with fluid that reduces the friction between the layers and helps keep them together residual volume – no matter how hard one exhales, the volume of air left in lungs respiration – entire process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and cells respiratory areas – groups of neurons that control breathing in the pons and medulla oblongata respiratory cycle – one inspiration followed by one expiration respiratory membrane – at least two epithelial cells and a layer of basement membrane separate the air in the alveolus from the blood respiratory system – main function is to obtain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide surfactant – mixture of lipids and proteins that is secreted in alveolar spaces to reduce their tendency to collapse and helps to inflate the alveoli tidal volume – volume of air that enters or leaves the lungs in one respiratory cycle trachea – the windpipe; flexible tube with cartilaginous rings to prevent it from collapsing visceral pleura – a layer of serous membrane attached to each lung surface Essential Questions: 1. What are the main functions of the respiratory system? 2. What are the main structures of the upper and lower respiratory tracts? 3. What is the main function of the nose? 4. What are the main functions of the nasal cavity? 5. What are the main functions of the paranasal sinuses? 6. What are the main functions of the pharynx? 7. What are the main functions of the larynx? 8. What is the main function of the trachea? 9. What are the bronchi? 10. What is the main function of the air sacs? 11. How does the size of the thoracic cavity relate to inspiration and expiration? 12. How is normal breathing controlled? 13. What is the structure and function of alveoli? 14. What is blood’s role in the respiratory system? Core Understandings: 1. The respiratory system includes tubes that remove particles from incoming air and transport air to and from the lungs and the air sacs where gases are exchanged. Respiration is the entire process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the body cells. 2. The organs of the respiratory system can be divided into two groups. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx. The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs. 3. The nose is provides and opening for air. 4. The nasal cavity has mucous membranes that filter, warm, and moisten incoming air. 5. The paranasal sinuses are air-filled spaces in the bones of the skull that open into the nasal cavity. They help to decrease the weight of the skull and are resonant chambers that affect the quality of the voice. 6. The pharynx is a passageway for food and air. 7. The larynx helps to prevent foreign objects from entering the trachea and is where the vocal cords are located. 8. The trachea is the windpipe that carries air down the chest. 9. The bronchi branch off into each lung like branches of a tree. 10. The lungs contain air sacs where gas exchange occurs. 11. Changes in the size of thoracic cavity accompany inspiration and expiration. 12. Normal breathing is rhythmic and involuntary. 13. Gas exchange between air and blood occurs in alveoli. 14. Blood transports gases between lungs and cells. Unit: Urinary System Description: Cells produce a lot of wastes that are toxic if they accumulate. Blood and lymph carry wastes from tissues that produce them and other structures are involved in removing the wastes from the body. The urinary system removes nitrogenous wastes and certain salts. In addition, the urinary system helps to maintain normal concentrations of water and electrolytes in body fluids, regulates pH and volume of body fluids, and helps control red blood cell production and blood pressure. Content Vocabulary: afferent arterioles – leads blood to the nephrons detrusor muscle – forms the sphincter that prevents the bladder from emptying until pressure builds up efferent arteriole – blood enters these vessels after passing through the glomeruli (instead of entering the venule system) glomerular capsule – thin-walled sac-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus glomerular filtrate – the substances that pass through the glomeruli into the capsule; mostly like plasma without large molecules glomerular filtration – filtration of plasma in the glomerular capillaries glomerulus – tangled web of blood capillaries in the renal corpuscle (upper part of nephron) juxtaglomerular apparatus – controls renin secretion and is located in the arterioles near the glomerulus kidney – reddish-brown, bean-shaped organ with smooth surface; removes wastes and helps to regulate the volume, composition, and pH of body fluids, as well as helps to regulate red blood cell production, blood volume, and blood pressure micturition – urination; process that expels urine form bladder nephrons – basic filtering unit of the kidneys net filtration pressure – net pressure forcing substances out of glomerulus peritubular capillaries – network of capillaries coming from the efferent arterioles; surrounds the renal tubule renal arteries – supply blood to the kidney from the aorta renal cortex – forms shell around medulla; contains nephrons renal medulla – composed of conical masses renal pelvis – the funnel shaped sac at the superior end of the ureter renal sinus – hollow chamber in the medial depression of the kidney renal vein – blood leaves nephrons and joins this vein renin – an enzyme that is released in response to low blood pressure in the afferent arterioles or a decrease in certain electrolytes in the distal tubule; activates angiotensinogen pathway to conserve sodium and water tubular fluid tubular reabsorption – moves substances from the tubular fluid back into the peritubular capillaries tubular secretion – moves substances from the blood in the peritubular capillaries back into the urea – product of amino acid catabolism (break down) ureter – tube about 25 cm long that starts in renal pelvis and ends at bladder urethra – tube that conveys urine from bladder to outside uric acid – product of the metabolism of certain organic bases in nucleic acids urinary bladder – hollow, distensible, muscular organ that stores urine and forces it into urethra urine – final product of the nephron Essential Questions: 1. What are the main structures of the urinary system? 2. 3. 4. 5. What are the main functions of the kidneys? What are the main functions of nephrons? What do nephrons do with water, sodium, urea, and uric acid? How does urine leave kidneys and exit the body? Core Understandings: 1. The urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. 2. Kidneys maintain homeostasis by removing wastes, and help regulate the volume, composition, and pH of body fluids, as well as help regulate red blood cell production, blood volume, and blood pressure. 3. Nephrons filter blood by removing wastes and regulating water and electrolyte balance. Urine is the end product. 4. Nephrons are involved in the reabsorption of water and sodium and the excretion of urea and uric acid. 5. Urine is excreted from the kidneys into the ureter tubes, which lead to the bladder. The bladder stores the urine temporarily until it leaves the body through the urethra. Unit: Endocrine System Description: The regulation of the functions of the body is a huge job. Different parts of the body must be able to communicate with one another as well as interpret and relay changes in the environment. Your body has two major ways of communicating. The nervous system allows for electrical impulses to relay messages while the endocrine system involves chemical messengers. The endocrine system includes glands (cells, tissues, and organs) that secrete hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that initiate many different pathways on a variety of target cells. Content Vocabulary: endocrine system – includes glands (cells, tissues, and organs) that secrete hormones hormones – secreted by various glands; chemicals that travel in the body and act on specific target cells with specific results target cells – cells that receive hormones and respond to the hormone’s chemical signal cyclic AMP (cAMP) – often a second messenger in some hormonal pathways pituitary gland – located in base of brain and divided into anterior and posterior lobes growth hormone – stimulates size and division of cells; secreted from anterior pituitary thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – controls secretion of hormones from thyroid; secreted from anterior pituitary antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – causes kidneys to conserve water; secreted from posterior pituitary thyroid gland – very vascular structure that sits just below the larynx and in front of the trachea thyroid hormones – increased metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins calcitonin – regulates concentrations of blood calcium and phosphate ions; secreted from thyroid’s extrafollicular cells parathyroid glands – sit on posterior surface of thyroid adrenal glands – sit on top of each kidney embedded in a mass of adipose tissue epinephrine – increases heart rate, causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles, dilates airways, promotes glycogen break down, increase metabolic rate, increase blood pressure, activates reticular formation of brains inducing “wakefulness”; secreted by adrenal glands norepinephrine – increases heart rate, increases blood flow to skeletal muscles and decreases to skin, greatly increases blood pressure, slightly dilates airways, increases metabolic rate, little or no effect on reticular formation or glycogen aldosterone – regulates concentration of mineral electrolytes by causing kidneys to conserve sodium ions and excrete potassium ions pancreas – elongated, flattened organ posterior to stomach and contains two major types of secretory tissues(islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets with alpha and beta cells); secretes hormones and digestive juice glucagon – stimulates liver to break down glycogen, which increases blood glucose levels; secreted by pancreas insulin – stimulates liver to form glycogen, which decrease blood glucose levels; also stimulated facilitated diffusion of glucose across cell membranes in cardiac muscle, adipose tissue, and resting skeletal muscle; secreted by pancreas stress – a response or condition produced by a factor or stressor Essential Questions: 1. What is the main function of the endocrine system? 2. What do endocrine glands secrete and what do these compounds do? 3. How is the concentration of each hormone in body fluids regulated? 4. What are the major glands of the endocrine system? 5. What hormones are secreted by the pituitary and what general function do they perform? 6. What hormones are secreted by the thyroid and what general function do they perform? 7. What hormones are secreted by the parathyroids and what general function do they perform? 8. What hormones are secreted by the adrenal glands and what general function do they perform? 9. What hormones are secreted by the pancreas and what general function do they perform? 10. How does stress occur and what glands and hormones are involved in the response to stress? Core Understandings: 1. The endocrine system helps the body to maintain homeostasis. 2. Endocrine glands secrete hormones that affect target cells with specific receptors. Hormones are very potent. 3. The concentration of each hormone in body fluids is regulated. 4. The glands of the endocrine system are the: pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, pineal, thymus, reproductive organs, digestive glands, and some others. 5. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe. The hypothalamus controls most pituitary secretions. The pituitary gland secretes many hormones with different functions including growth hormone (stimulates growth), thyroid stimulating hormone (controls secretions from thyroid), and antidiuretic hormone (stimulates conservation of water). 6. The thyroid gland is in the neck and consists of two lobes. It releases thyroid hormones (regulate metabolism of marcomolecules)and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium). 7. The parathyroid glands are on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and secrete parathyroid hormone. 8. The adrenal glands are on top of the kidneys. They release several different hormones including epinephrine and norepinephrine (increase heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure and decrease digestive activity) and aldosterone (helps regulate extracellular electrolytes). 9. The pancreas secretes digestive juices as well as hormones. The hormones are glucagon (increase blood glucose) and insulin (decreases blood glucose). 10. Stress occurs when the body responds to stressors that threaten the maintenance of homeostasis. Stress responses include increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and increased secretion from the adrenal glands. Unit: Muscular System Description: All the movements that we make require muscles. Running, talking, breathing, sneezing and every other voluntary and involuntary movement we make requires muscles. Muscles are organs made up of connective tissue, blood, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue. Muscles are stimulated by electrical impulses and use chemical energy to contract. Muscles are involved in providing muscle tone, propelling food and body fluids, generating our heart beat, and distributing heat. There are three main types of muscles: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. This unit will focus on skeletal muscle contraction. Content Vocabulary: A bands – dark bands; composed of thick myosin overlapping with actin acetylcholine - neurotransmitter involved in skeletal muscle contractions acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine actin – thin myofibrils ATPase – an enzyme that catalyzes the break down of ATP to ADP cardiac muscle – specialized muscle tissue found only in heart; branched striations creatine phosphate – a molecule that contains high-energy phosphate bonds and is found great quantity in muscle fibers; when excess ATP is in cell it stores phosphates that can later be used to make ATP when levels drop fascia – layers of connective tissue that separate an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent muscles and hold it into position H zone – area in A band where there is only myosin I bands – light bands; composed of actin filaments attached directly to Z lines latent period- a twitch has a brief delay between the time of stimulation and the beginning of the contraction M line – thickening in center of H Zone; consist of proteins that help hold myosin in place motor neurons – control effectors including skeletal muscles motor unit – a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers (cells) it controls muscle tone – even at rest muscle fibers undergo some sustained contraction myofibrils – thread-like, protein strands that lie parallel in a skeletal muscle fiber (cell) myoglobin – pigment made in muscle that carries oxygen like hemoglobin; responsible for reddishbrown color of muscles myosin – thick myofibrils neuromuscular junction – connection between neuron and muscle fiber neurotransmitters – chemicals released at synapse to communicate from one cell to the next oxygen debt – equals the amount of oxygen liver cells need to convert lactic acid into glucose plus the amount muscle cells need to restore ATP and creatine phosphate to original concentrations recruitment – increasing the number of motor units being activated to provide maximal tension sarcomeres – a repeating pattern of units made by the striations formed by myosin and actin; extends from one Z line to the next Z line sarcoplasmic reticulum – membranous channels that correspond to ER in other cells; surround each myofibril skeletal muscle – composed of muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and other connective tissues; attached to bones and controlled by voluntary mechanisms; appears striated skeletal muscle fiber – a single cell that contracts in response to stimuli sliding filament model – the way that muscle fibers contract smooth muscle – found in walls of viscera and controlled by involuntary mechanisms; does not appear striated because myofibrils organized more randomly summation – force of individual twitches together synapse – small gap in communication pathway of neurons tetanus – sustained contraction without relaxation threshold stimulus – cell remains unresponsive until an action potential is generated transverse tubules (T tubules) – another set of membranous channels that extend inward as invaginations from fiber’s membrane and pass all the way through the fiber (cell); each tubule opens to outside extracellular environment tropomyosin – a protein that is a part of actin filaments; covers the myosin head binding sites on actin troponin – a protein that is a part of actin filaments; calcium binding site twitch – contractile response of a single muscle fiber to a muscle impulse Z line – outer edge of I bands on either side Essential Questions: 1. What are the three types of muscle? 2. What makes up the muscle organ? 3. What are the major components involved in muscle contraction? 4. How do muscles contract? 5. How are muscle fiber responses measured and analyzed? Core Understandings: 1. The three types of muscle are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. 2. Individual muscles are the organs of the muscular system. They include muscle tissue, nervous tissue, blood, and other connective tissues. 3. Muscle fiber contraction results from the sliding movement of actin and myosin filaments. 4. Regulation of skeletal muscle contraction involves the nervous system, ATP, proteins like troponin and tropomyosin, neurotransmitters, creatine phosphate, and calcium ions. 5. Muscle fiber response can be measured electrically and the electrical response analyzed. Unit: Nervous System Description: Thinking, remembering, moving, feeling, breathing, and being aware of the world all involve the nervous system. A huge number of nerves convey information from the outside world to our brains. Within our bodies nerves communicate electrochemically between all parts of the body and the brain. The focus in this unit will be how the nerve impulse is generated and how it moves through the nervous system. Content Vocabulary: action potential – basis for a nerve impulse; causes a bioelectric current to flow to adjacent portions of the membrane autonomic nervous system – controls effectors that are involuntary such as heart and smooth muscle and various glands axon – extensions of a neuron that send impulses; most neurons have only one axon brainstem – bundle of nervous tissue that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord; contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; functions in homeostasis, coordination of movement and conduction of information to and from higher brain cell body – rounded are of a neuron central nervous system – consists of brain and spinal cord cerebellum – large mass of tissue below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum and posterior to the pons and medulla oblongata; functions in integrating sensory information concerning position of body parts and coordinating complex skeletal movements as well as maintaining posture cerebrum – two large masses (left and right); involved in higher brain functions like memory, reason, intelligence, and personality convergence – axons from different areas of nervous system that lead to the same neuron dendrites – extensions of a neuron that receive electrochemical messages depolarized – when the inside of the cell becomes less negative than the outside of the cell diencephalon – located between the cerebral hemispheres and the midbrain and surrounds the third ventricle; houses the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal glands divergence – impulses leaving the same neuron my pass into several other output neurons effectors – responsive structures that receive impulses from the peripheral nervous system excitatory response – triggers an action potential by bringing membrane to the threshold facilitation – when a neuron is subthreshold, is more excitable to incoming stimuli hyperpolarization – when the membrane potential becomes overly negative inhibitory response – prevent or slow the action potential interneurons – carry nerve impulses between nerves in the CNS only motor neurons (efferent fibers) – carry nerve impulse from the CNS to the PNS myelin sheath – made by Schwann cells (a type of neuroglial cell); surrounds, protects, and insulates axons in peripheral nervous system nerve impulses – transmitting information in the form of electrochemical changes nerves – bundles of axons neuroglial cells – fill spaces, provide structural framework, produce myelin, and carry on phagocytosis neuron – nerve cells that are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system neuronal pools – groups of neurons that make hundreds of synaptic connections with each other and work together to perform a common function neurotransmitters – biochemicals that carry signals across synapse causing either a excitatory or inhibitory response nodes of Ranvier – narrow gaps in the myelin sheath peripheral nervous system – all other nerves other than those in spinal cord and brain reflex arc – a nerve pathway consisting of a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron that forms the structural and functional basis for a reflex repolarization – when the membrane returns to its resting potential resting potential – in a resting cell, the difference in electrical charge between the region inside the membrane and the region outside of the membrane sensory neurons (afferent fibers) – carry nerve impulses from PNS into CNS sensory receptors – ends of peripheral nerves that detect changes in both inside and outside of body somatic nervous system – consciously controlled responses in skeletal muscle synapse – junction or small physical gap between two neurons threshold potential – when the neurons are depolarized sufficiently to reach a level that causes an action potential; approximately -55mv Essential Questions: 1. What are the main structures and functions of the nervous system? 2. What are neurons and what are the major parts of their structure? 3. What is a synapse and what is its main function? 4. How is a cell membrane usually polarized? 5. How is an action potential generated? 6. What is a nerve impulse? 7. What are neurotransmitters and what do they do? 8. How does the organization of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord help process and respond to impulses? 9. What are nerves? 10. What is a nerve pathway? 11. What is the spinal cord? 12. What are the major parts of the brain? 13. What is the peripheral nervous system? 14. What is the autonomic nervous system? Core Understandings: 1. The nervous system includes neurons and the brain, which acts to collect sensory information, integrate the information, and respond to it. 2. Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system and contain a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. 3. A synapse is a junction between two neurons or between a neuron and another cell where neurotransmitters relay electrical impulse information. 4. A cell membrane is usually polarized as a result of an unequal ion distribution. 5. An action potential is generated when a membrane becomes depolarized. 6. A wave of action potentials is a nerve impulse. 7. Synaptic transmission relies on neurotransmitters that create either an excitatory or inhibitory response. 8. How the nervous system processes and responds to nerve impulses reflects the organization of neurons in the brain and spinal cord. 9. Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) that are sensory, motor, or mixed. 10. A nerve pathway is the route an impulse follows through the nervous system. 11. The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal. 12. The brain is divided into the cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebrum. 13. The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch from the brain and spinal cord to all body parts. It is subdivided into the somatic and autonomic systems. 14. The autonomic nervous system functions without conscious effort. It regulates the visceral activities that maintain homeostasis.