Download click here for all course vocabulary

Unit:
Digestive System and Nutrition
Description:
All organisms need various nutrients to survive. Humans obtain these nutrients by eating and
drinking. The millions of cells that make up your body cannot travel to the food source so the food
must be converted into usable forms and delivered. Foods and liquids must be broken down and
delivered to the body to provide energy, building materials, metabolism regulators, and much more.
This life-supporting job falls to the digestive system. The digestive system provides both the
mechanical and chemical break down of food. This is followed by the absorption of nutrients by the
body and any leftover, undigested waste is excreted from the body. The circulatory system transfers
the absorbed nutrients to the rest of the body.
Content Vocabulary:
alimentary canal – a structure that extend from the mouth to the anus
anus – outside and end opening of alimentary canal
ascending colon – begins at cecum and continues upward
bile – yellow-green liquid secreted from hepatic (liver) cells and contains bile salts, bile pigments
(bilirubin and biliverdin), cholesterol, and electrolytes
bile salts – break fat globules into smaller droplets (emsulsification), and enhance absorption of fatty
acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble vitamins
bolus – a mass of food mixed with saliva
carbohydrates – include sugars and starches and provide main source of energy
cecum – pouch-like structure at the beginning of large intestine which leads to rest of intestine of to
appendix
cellulose (fiber) – complex carbohydrate found in plant cell walls that humans cannot digest
chime – mixture of food particles and gastric juice
cholecystokinin – proteins and fats stimulate the intestinal wall to release this enzyme, which
decreases gastric motility
descending colon – follows the transverse section downward
digestion – mechanical and chemical break down of foods, and the absorption of the resulting
nutrients by cells
duodenum – first 25 cm of small intestine
epiglottis – a flap-like structure attached to larynx that closes off the trachea so that food does not
enter it
esophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter – the thickened wall that prevents stomach contents
from regurgitating into the stomach
esophagus – a straight, collapsible tube about 25 cm long connecting the pharynx to the stomach
essential nutrients – nutrients that the body cannot synthesize
feces – undigested and unabsorbed materials; also includes water, mucus, shed intestinal cells, and
bacteria
gastric glands – found in stomach and secrete gastric juice
gastric juice – includes mucus, digestive enzymes, intrinsic factor, and hydrochloric acid
gastrin – a hormone released in stomach that stimulates secretory activity of gastric glands as well
as cell growth in the stomach lining
glycogen – a complex carbohydrate made from excess sugars in liver
hepatic duct- transfer bile from liver into the small intestine
ileocecal sphincter – distal end of small intestine where it joins the large intestine; opens to let
chime pass into large intestine
ileum – third and remaining section of the small intestine
intestinal glands – found at the base of each villus; secrete enzymes like peptidases, sucrose,
maltase, lactase, and lipase
intestinal villi – tiny projections of the inner wall of the small intestine and greatly increase the
surface area for absorption
intrinsic factor – in gastric juice and helps aid in B12 absorption
jejunum – second portion of small intestine and includes about 2/5 of total length
lacteal – lymphatic vessel in each villus that helps carries nutrients to the body
large intestine – larger in diameter than the small intestine; absorbs water and electrolytes from
chyme and forms and stores feces
lipids – include fats, oils, and steroids; provide energy and build cell membranes,
liver – large, reddish-brown organ that has many functions; main digestive function is the production
and secretion of bile
macronutrients – required in large amounts (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins)
micronutrients – required in much smaller amounts (vitamins and minerals)
minerals – inorganic elements essential for metabolism
mouth – receives food and begins digestion mechanically; mixes food with saliva
pancreas – an endocrine gland that secretes pancreatic juice
pancreatic juice – contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates (pancreatic amylase), lipids
(pancreatic lipase), nucleic acids (nucleases), and proteins (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase) and bicarbonate to neutralize acidity of chyme
pepsin – most important gastric enzyme which breaks down protein (inactive form is called
pepsinogen)
peristalsis – wavelike movements that moves food down the canal
pharynx – connects nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus
proteins – composed of amino acids; serve as structural materials, function as enzymes, and provide
energy
pyloric sphincter – the thickened wall that controls gastric emptying into the small intestine
rectum – attached to the sacrum and leads to anal canal and anus
salivary amylase – enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch and glycogen
salivary glands – secrete saliva; include the parotid, submadibular, and sublingual
secretin – a hormone released in duodenum, which stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice
sigmoid colon – the S-shaped section after the descending colon and ends in the rectum
small intestine – tubular organ that extends from stomach to large intestine; completes digestion,
absorbs products of digestion, and transports leftover residues to large intestine
stomach – a J-shaped pouch and can hold about 1 liter or more; receives food from the esophagus,
beings protein digestion, and carries on limited absorption
transverse colon – begins after ascending and crosses the abdomen horizontally
vitamins – organic compounds (other than the macronutrients) including fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K)
and water-soluble (B and C)
Essential Questions:
1. What are the main functions and structures of the digestive system?
2. What are the functions of the mouth?
3. What are the functions of the salivary glands?
4. What are the functions of the pharynx and esophagus?
5. What are the functions of the stomach?
6. What are the functions of the pancreas?
7. What are the functions of the liver?
8. What is the function of the gall bladder?
9. What are the functions of the small intestine?
10. What are the functions of the large intestine?
11. What is nutrition and what nutrients are needed by the body?
12. What is the main function of carbohydrates?
13. What are the functions of lipids in the body?
14. What are the functions of proteins in the body?
15. What are the functions of vitamins and minerals in the body?
Core Understandings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Digestion mechanically and chemically breaks down food and absorbs the products. The
digestive system consists of the alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine) and several accessory organs (salivary glands, pancreas, liver,
and gall bladder).
The mouth receives the food and begins digestion.
Salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food, helps bind food particles, begins chemical
digestion of carbohydrates, makes taste possible, and helps clean mouth.
The pharynx and esophagus are important passageways.
The stomach receives food, mixes it with gastric juice, carries on a limited amount of absorption,
and moves food into the small intestine.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, which helps digest proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as neutralizes the acidic chime.
The liver secretes bile. Bile contains bile salts, which emulsify fats and aid in the absorption of
fatty acids, cholesterol, and certain vitamins.
The gall bladder stores bile.
The small intestine receives secretions from the pancreas and liver, completes nutrient
digestion, absorbs products of digestion, and transports the residues to the large intestine.
The large intestine reabsorbs water and electrolytes, and forms and stores feces.
Nutrition is the study of nutrients and how the body utilizes them. The macronutrients
(carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids) are required in large amounts. The micronutrients (vitamins
and minerals) are needed in smaller amounts.
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy, which is obtained through the oxidization
of glucose.
Lipids supply energy and build cell membranes and steroids.
Proteins serve as structural materials, function as enzymes, and provide energy.
Vitamins and minerals have a variety of functions including roles in metabolism and enzyme
activities.
Unit:
Cardiovascular System and Blood
Description:
The cardiovascular system is the major highway system of your body. Everything that your body
requires or must get rid of has to use the cardiovascular system. Blood transports nutrients from the
digestive system to all parts of the body. Oxygen is transported from the respiratory system to the
body while carbon dioxide is transported to the lungs to be exhaled. Blood carries hormones, wastes
destined for excretion, various cells, antibodies, and many different enzymes and chemicals. The
blood moves through vessels, and of course, the heart keeps the blood moving. This one system has
connections to all parts of the body!
Content Vocabulary:
ABO blood group – based on the presence or absence of two major protein markers or antigens on
red blood cells
agglutination – clumping of red blood cells following a transfusion reaction
albumin – a plasma protein that helps maintain osmotic pressure
antibodies – immune system “fighters” that react with antigens
antigens – red-blood cell markers on the surface of the cell
aorta – the largest artery; how blood leaves the left ventricle
aortic valve – allows blood to leave the left ventricle and prevents back-flow
arteries – strong, elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart
arterioles – finer, branched vessels that carry blood away from the heart
atrioventriuclar node (AV node) – specialized tissue in the septum between the atria; continues
impulses received from SA node and send them down the AV-bundle
AV bundle – large fibers that send electrical impulses down the septum to the Purkinje fibers to make
the ventricles contract
blood volume – the sum of the formed elements and plasma volumes in the vascular system; about
5 liters in adults
capillaries – smallest-diameter vessels that have walls only one cell thick; location of all gas, wastes,
and nutrients exchange between blood and tissues
cardiac conduction system – coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle
cardiac cycle – series of events that occur as the heart completes one heartbeat
cardiac output – volume of blood discharged from the ventricle per minute
cardiac veins – run roughly parallel to the coronary arteries and join the coronary sinus which dumps
blood back into the right atrium
coagulation – formation of a blood clot during hemostasis
coronary arteries – supply blood to the tissues of the heart; their opening is just beyond the aortic
valve
coronary sinus – large vein on hearts posterior surface; empties the cardiac veins
diastole – when ventricles contract and atria relax
diastolic pressure – the lowest pressure that remains in the arteries after the ventricles relax
Electrocardiogram (ECG) – a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium
during the cardiac cycle
embolus – an abnormal clot that moves from where it was formed
endocardium – thick middle layer of the wall of the heart; consists of mostly cardiac muscle tissue
epicardium – outer layer of the wall of the heart; protects heart by reducing friction
erythropoietin – a hormone that controls the rate of red blood cell formation
fibrin – fibrous protein that forms blood clots; inactive form is called fibrinogen
fibrinogen – a plasma protein that plays a role in blood coagulation (clotting)
globulins – a group of plasma proteins that transport lipids and fat-soluble vitamins and make up a
type of antibody
hemoglobin – a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen
hemostasis – stoppage of bleeding when vessels are damaged
inferior vena cava – large vein the brings blood back from lower body to right atrium
left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from lungs
left ventricle – pumps oxygenated blood to body
macrophages – white blood cells that destroy damaged red blood cells primarily in the spleen and
liver
mitral valve (bicuspid) – between the left atrium and left ventricle; prevents back-flow
myocardium – inner layer of the heart wall; consists of epithelial cells and connective tissue as well
as the Purkinje fibers
nonprotein nitrogenous substances – molecules that have nitrogen, but are not proteins (urea, uric
acid, and amino acids)
pericardium – sac-like structure that encloses the heart and the proximal ends of the large blood
vessels to which it attaches
peripheral resistance – friction between the blood and the walls of the vessels, which hinders blood
flow
plasma – liquid portion of blood
plasma proteins – most abundant of dissolved substance in plasma
platelets – not complete cells; fragments of larger cells that help to control blood loss
prothrombin – a globulin that, when activated, is converted into thrombin
pulmonary arteries – carry blood away from heart and to lungs
pulmonary circuit – sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen and unload carbon
dioxide
pulmonary valve – allows blood to leave the right ventricle and prevents back-flow
pulmonary veins – carry blood away from lungs and back to heart
Purkinje fibers – branched fibers that continue the electrical impulses to the apex of the heart and
throughout the ventricles
red blood cells (erythrocytes) – biconcave discs that carry oxygen
Rh blood group – includes several Rh antigens; the presence of any of these antigens makes blood
Rh positive and the absence makes blood Rh negative
right atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from body
right ventricle – pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
septum – solid, wall-like structure that separates the right and left sides; prevents oxygenated blood
from mixing with deoxygenated blood
serum – clear, yellow liquid that remains after the blood clot is formed
sinoatrial node (SA node) – specialized tissue in the cardiac muscle of the right atrium that initiates
impulses to contract; often called the pacemaker
stroke volume – volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with each contraction
superior vena cava – large vein the brings blood back from upper body to right atrium
systemic circuit – sends oxygenated blood and nutrients to all body cells and removes wastes
systole – when atria contract and ventricles relax
systolic pressure – the maximum pressure during ventricular contraction
thrombin – catalyzes the reaction that activates fibrinogen into fibrin
thrombus – a blood clot that abnormally forms in a vessel
tricuspid valve – between the right atrium and right ventricle; prevents back-flow
vasoconstriction – smooth muscle contractions reduce the diameter of vessels
vasodilation – smooth muscle relaxation increases the diameter of vessels
vasospasm – smooth muscle contraction that closes small vessels
veins – carry blood back to heart; thinner walls, but greater diameter than arteries; contain valves to
prevent back-flow
venules – microscopic vessels that carry blood from capillaries to veins
viscosity – the ease with which a fluid’s molecules flow past one another
white blood cells (leukocytes) – protect against disease; include neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes
Essential Questions:
1. What are the structures and functions of blood?
2. What are the functions of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets?
3. What are the structures and functions of plasma?
4. What is the function of hemostasis?
5. How is blood typed?
6. What are the major structures and functions of the cardiovascular system?
7. What is the structure and main function of the heart?
8. What controls the cardiac cycle?
9. What the structures and functions of blood vessels?
10. What are the structures and functions of capillaries?
11. What is blood pressure?
12. What are the structures and functions of the pulmonary circuit?
13. What are the structures and functions of the arteriole system?
14. What are the structures and functions of the venous system?
Core Understandings:
1. Blood is a type of connective tissue consisting of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
suspended in a liquid, plasma, extracellular matrix. It transports substances between cells and
the external environment, and helps maintain a stable internal environment.
2. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells protect and fight disease, and platelets help clot
blood.
3. Plasma transports gases and nutrients, helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, and helps
maintain stable pH.
4. Hemostasis is the stoppage of bleeding.
5. Blood can be typed on the basis of surface antigens and antibody reactions.
6. The cardiovascular system, consisting of heart and blood vessels, provides oxygen and nutrients
to tissues and removes wastes.
7. The heart has 4 chambers, and keeps oxygenated blood separate from deoxygenated blood as
it pumps.
8. The cardiac cycle is controlled by electrical impulses as the atria and then ventricle contract.
9. Blood vessels form a closed circuit that carry blood from the heart through arteries to body cells
and back again through veins.
10. Capillaries are where blood and tissue fluid exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts.
11. Blood pressure is the force blood exerts on the insides of blood vessels.
12. The pulmonary circuit consists of vessels that carry blood to the lungs and back to the heart.
13. The arteriole system reaches to all parts of the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen.
14. The venous system returns blood to the heart from all parts of the body in order to deliver carbon
dioxide to the lungs.
Unit:
Respiratory System
Description:
Cells require oxygen to break down nutrients to release energy and produce ATP (cellular
respiration). In this process carbon dioxide is produced and must be excreted. Obtaining oxygen and
getting rid of carbon dioxide is the main function of the respiratory system. The entire exchange of
gases between the atmosphere and the cells is called respiration. The respiratory system also
entraps particles from incoming air, helps to control temperature and water content of the air,
produces vocal sounds, and participates in the sense of smell and regulation of blood pH.
Content Vocabulary:
alveolar ducts – very thin tubes leading to air sacs
alveolar sacs – thin-walled outpouchings that lead to alveoli
alveoli – microscopic air sacs where gas exchange occurs with blood
bicarbonate ions – proved the most important mechanism for carbon dioxide transport in blood
bronchial tree – branched airways leading from trachea to both lungs
bronchioles – smaller tubes branching from the bronchi
carbonic anhydrase – an enzyme in red blood cells that speeds the reaction between carbon
dioxide and water
epiglottis – flap-like structure that prevents food from going down the trachea
expiration – exhalation
expiratory reserve volume – during forced expiration, the volume of air beyond the resting tidal
volume that leaves lungs
hemoglobin – iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen
inspiration – inhalation
inspiratory reserve volume – during forced inspiration, the volume of air in addition to resting tidal
volume that enters lungs
larynx – enlarged area at the top of the trachea which houses the vocal cords
lungs – soft, spongy cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity
nasal cavity – hollow space behind the nose; has a mucous membrane that helps filter, warm and
moisten the air
nose – bone and cartilage that contain to nostrils that are open to the air
paranasal sinuses – air-filled spaces in the bones of the skull that open into the nasal cavity
parietal pleura – area of visceral pleura that is folded back and lines the inner wall of the pleural
cavity
partial pressure – the amount of pressure that each gas contributes to the total pressure
pharynx – the throat; a passageway for food and air
pleural cavity – potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura; it is filled with fluid that
reduces the friction between the layers and helps keep them together
residual volume – no matter how hard one exhales, the volume of air left in lungs
respiration – entire process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and cells
respiratory areas – groups of neurons that control breathing in the pons and medulla oblongata
respiratory cycle – one inspiration followed by one expiration
respiratory membrane – at least two epithelial cells and a layer of basement membrane separate
the air in the alveolus from the blood
respiratory system – main function is to obtain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
surfactant – mixture of lipids and proteins that is secreted in alveolar spaces to reduce their
tendency to collapse and helps to inflate the alveoli
tidal volume – volume of air that enters or leaves the lungs in one respiratory cycle
trachea – the windpipe; flexible tube with cartilaginous rings to prevent it from collapsing
visceral pleura – a layer of serous membrane attached to each lung surface
Essential Questions:
1. What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
2. What are the main structures of the upper and lower respiratory tracts?
3. What is the main function of the nose?
4. What are the main functions of the nasal cavity?
5. What are the main functions of the paranasal sinuses?
6. What are the main functions of the pharynx?
7. What are the main functions of the larynx?
8. What is the main function of the trachea?
9. What are the bronchi?
10. What is the main function of the air sacs?
11. How does the size of the thoracic cavity relate to inspiration and expiration?
12. How is normal breathing controlled?
13. What is the structure and function of alveoli?
14. What is blood’s role in the respiratory system?
Core Understandings:
1. The respiratory system includes tubes that remove particles from incoming air and transport air
to and from the lungs and the air sacs where gases are exchanged. Respiration is the entire
process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the body cells.
2. The organs of the respiratory system can be divided into two groups. The upper respiratory tract
includes the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx. The lower respiratory tract
includes the larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs.
3. The nose is provides and opening for air.
4. The nasal cavity has mucous membranes that filter, warm, and moisten incoming air.
5. The paranasal sinuses are air-filled spaces in the bones of the skull that open into the nasal
cavity. They help to decrease the weight of the skull and are resonant chambers that affect the
quality of the voice.
6. The pharynx is a passageway for food and air.
7. The larynx helps to prevent foreign objects from entering the trachea and is where the vocal
cords are located.
8. The trachea is the windpipe that carries air down the chest.
9. The bronchi branch off into each lung like branches of a tree.
10. The lungs contain air sacs where gas exchange occurs.
11. Changes in the size of thoracic cavity accompany inspiration and expiration.
12. Normal breathing is rhythmic and involuntary.
13. Gas exchange between air and blood occurs in alveoli.
14. Blood transports gases between lungs and cells.
Unit:
Urinary System
Description:
Cells produce a lot of wastes that are toxic if they accumulate. Blood and lymph carry wastes from
tissues that produce them and other structures are involved in removing the wastes from the body.
The urinary system removes nitrogenous wastes and certain salts. In addition, the urinary system
helps to maintain normal concentrations of water and electrolytes in body fluids, regulates pH and
volume of body fluids, and helps control red blood cell production and blood pressure.
Content Vocabulary:
afferent arterioles – leads blood to the nephrons
detrusor muscle – forms the sphincter that prevents the bladder from emptying until pressure builds
up
efferent arteriole – blood enters these vessels after passing through the glomeruli (instead of
entering the venule system)
glomerular capsule – thin-walled sac-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus
glomerular filtrate – the substances that pass through the glomeruli into the capsule; mostly like
plasma without large molecules
glomerular filtration – filtration of plasma in the glomerular capillaries
glomerulus – tangled web of blood capillaries in the renal corpuscle (upper part of nephron)
juxtaglomerular apparatus – controls renin secretion and is located in the arterioles near the
glomerulus
kidney – reddish-brown, bean-shaped organ with smooth surface; removes wastes and helps to
regulate the volume, composition, and pH of body fluids, as well as helps to regulate red blood cell
production, blood volume, and blood pressure
micturition – urination; process that expels urine form bladder
nephrons – basic filtering unit of the kidneys
net filtration pressure – net pressure forcing substances out of glomerulus
peritubular capillaries – network of capillaries coming from the efferent arterioles; surrounds the
renal tubule
renal arteries – supply blood to the kidney from the aorta
renal cortex – forms shell around medulla; contains nephrons
renal medulla – composed of conical masses
renal pelvis – the funnel shaped sac at the superior end of the ureter
renal sinus – hollow chamber in the medial depression of the kidney
renal vein – blood leaves nephrons and joins this vein
renin – an enzyme that is released in response to low blood pressure in the afferent arterioles or a
decrease in certain electrolytes in the distal tubule; activates angiotensinogen pathway to conserve
sodium and water
tubular fluid
tubular reabsorption – moves substances from the tubular fluid back into the peritubular capillaries
tubular secretion – moves substances from the blood in the peritubular capillaries back into the
urea – product of amino acid catabolism (break down)
ureter – tube about 25 cm long that starts in renal pelvis and ends at bladder
urethra – tube that conveys urine from bladder to outside
uric acid – product of the metabolism of certain organic bases in nucleic acids
urinary bladder – hollow, distensible, muscular organ that stores urine and forces it into urethra
urine – final product of the nephron
Essential Questions:
1. What are the main structures of the urinary system?
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are the main functions of the kidneys?
What are the main functions of nephrons?
What do nephrons do with water, sodium, urea, and uric acid?
How does urine leave kidneys and exit the body?
Core Understandings:
1. The urinary system consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
2. Kidneys maintain homeostasis by removing wastes, and help regulate the volume, composition,
and pH of body fluids, as well as help regulate red blood cell production, blood volume, and
blood pressure.
3. Nephrons filter blood by removing wastes and regulating water and electrolyte balance. Urine is
the end product.
4. Nephrons are involved in the reabsorption of water and sodium and the excretion of urea and
uric acid.
5. Urine is excreted from the kidneys into the ureter tubes, which lead to the bladder. The bladder
stores the urine temporarily until it leaves the body through the urethra.
Unit:
Endocrine System
Description:
The regulation of the functions of the body is a huge job. Different parts of the body must be able to
communicate with one another as well as interpret and relay changes in the environment. Your body
has two major ways of communicating. The nervous system allows for electrical impulses to relay
messages while the endocrine system involves chemical messengers. The endocrine system
includes glands (cells, tissues, and organs) that secrete hormones. Hormones are chemical
messengers that initiate many different pathways on a variety of target cells.
Content Vocabulary:
endocrine system – includes glands (cells, tissues, and organs) that secrete hormones
hormones – secreted by various glands; chemicals that travel in the body and act on specific target
cells with specific results
target cells – cells that receive hormones and respond to the hormone’s chemical signal
cyclic AMP (cAMP) – often a second messenger in some hormonal pathways
pituitary gland – located in base of brain and divided into anterior and posterior lobes
growth hormone – stimulates size and division of cells; secreted from anterior pituitary
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – controls secretion of hormones from thyroid; secreted from
anterior pituitary
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – causes kidneys to conserve water; secreted from posterior pituitary
thyroid gland – very vascular structure that sits just below the larynx and in front of the trachea
thyroid hormones – increased metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
calcitonin – regulates concentrations of blood calcium and phosphate ions; secreted from thyroid’s
extrafollicular cells
parathyroid glands – sit on posterior surface of thyroid
adrenal glands – sit on top of each kidney embedded in a mass of adipose tissue
epinephrine – increases heart rate, causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles, dilates airways,
promotes glycogen break down, increase metabolic rate, increase blood pressure, activates reticular
formation of brains inducing “wakefulness”; secreted by adrenal glands
norepinephrine – increases heart rate, increases blood flow to skeletal muscles and decreases to
skin, greatly increases blood pressure, slightly dilates airways, increases metabolic rate, little or no
effect on reticular formation or glycogen
aldosterone – regulates concentration of mineral electrolytes by causing kidneys to conserve sodium
ions and excrete potassium ions
pancreas – elongated, flattened organ posterior to stomach and contains two major types of
secretory tissues(islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets with alpha and beta cells); secretes
hormones and digestive juice
glucagon – stimulates liver to break down glycogen, which increases blood glucose levels; secreted
by pancreas
insulin – stimulates liver to form glycogen, which decrease blood glucose levels; also stimulated
facilitated diffusion of glucose across cell membranes in cardiac muscle, adipose tissue, and resting
skeletal muscle; secreted by pancreas
stress – a response or condition produced by a factor or stressor
Essential Questions:
1. What is the main function of the endocrine system?
2. What do endocrine glands secrete and what do these compounds do?
3. How is the concentration of each hormone in body fluids regulated?
4. What are the major glands of the endocrine system?
5. What hormones are secreted by the pituitary and what general function do they perform?
6. What hormones are secreted by the thyroid and what general function do they perform?
7. What hormones are secreted by the parathyroids and what general function do they perform?
8. What hormones are secreted by the adrenal glands and what general function do they perform?
9. What hormones are secreted by the pancreas and what general function do they perform?
10. How does stress occur and what glands and hormones are involved in the response to stress?
Core Understandings:
1. The endocrine system helps the body to maintain homeostasis.
2. Endocrine glands secrete hormones that affect target cells with specific receptors. Hormones
are very potent.
3. The concentration of each hormone in body fluids is regulated.
4. The glands of the endocrine system are the: pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenal, pancreas, pineal, thymus, reproductive organs, digestive glands, and some others.
5. The pituitary gland has an anterior and posterior lobe. The hypothalamus controls most pituitary
secretions. The pituitary gland secretes many hormones with different functions including
growth hormone (stimulates growth), thyroid stimulating hormone (controls secretions from
thyroid), and antidiuretic hormone (stimulates conservation of water).
6. The thyroid gland is in the neck and consists of two lobes. It releases thyroid hormones
(regulate metabolism of marcomolecules)and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium).
7. The parathyroid glands are on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland and secrete parathyroid
hormone.
8. The adrenal glands are on top of the kidneys. They release several different hormones including
epinephrine and norepinephrine (increase heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure and
decrease digestive activity) and aldosterone (helps regulate extracellular electrolytes).
9. The pancreas secretes digestive juices as well as hormones. The hormones are glucagon
(increase blood glucose) and insulin (decreases blood glucose).
10. Stress occurs when the body responds to stressors that threaten the maintenance of
homeostasis. Stress responses include increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system
and increased secretion from the adrenal glands.
Unit:
Muscular System
Description:
All the movements that we make require muscles. Running, talking, breathing, sneezing and every
other voluntary and involuntary movement we make requires muscles. Muscles are organs made up
of connective tissue, blood, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue. Muscles are stimulated by electrical
impulses and use chemical energy to contract. Muscles are involved in providing muscle tone,
propelling food and body fluids, generating our heart beat, and distributing heat. There are three
main types of muscles: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. This unit will focus on skeletal muscle
contraction.
Content Vocabulary:
A bands – dark bands; composed of thick myosin overlapping with actin
acetylcholine - neurotransmitter involved in skeletal muscle contractions
acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine
actin – thin myofibrils
ATPase – an enzyme that catalyzes the break down of ATP to ADP
cardiac muscle – specialized muscle tissue found only in heart; branched striations
creatine phosphate – a molecule that contains high-energy phosphate bonds and is found great
quantity in muscle fibers; when excess ATP is in cell it stores phosphates that can later be used to
make ATP when levels drop
fascia – layers of connective tissue that separate an individual skeletal muscle from adjacent
muscles and hold it into position
H zone – area in A band where there is only myosin
I bands – light bands; composed of actin filaments attached directly to Z lines
latent period- a twitch has a brief delay between the time of stimulation and the beginning of the
contraction
M line – thickening in center of H Zone; consist of proteins that help hold myosin in place
motor neurons – control effectors including skeletal muscles
motor unit – a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers (cells) it controls
muscle tone – even at rest muscle fibers undergo some sustained contraction
myofibrils – thread-like, protein strands that lie parallel in a skeletal muscle fiber (cell)
myoglobin – pigment made in muscle that carries oxygen like hemoglobin; responsible for reddishbrown color of muscles
myosin – thick myofibrils
neuromuscular junction – connection between neuron and muscle fiber
neurotransmitters – chemicals released at synapse to communicate from one cell to the next
oxygen debt – equals the amount of oxygen liver cells need to convert lactic acid into glucose plus
the amount muscle cells need to restore ATP and creatine phosphate to original concentrations
recruitment – increasing the number of motor units being activated to provide maximal tension
sarcomeres – a repeating pattern of units made by the striations formed by myosin and actin;
extends from one Z line to the next Z line
sarcoplasmic reticulum – membranous channels that correspond to ER in other cells; surround
each myofibril
skeletal muscle – composed of muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and other connective tissues;
attached to bones and controlled by voluntary mechanisms; appears striated
skeletal muscle fiber – a single cell that contracts in response to stimuli
sliding filament model – the way that muscle fibers contract
smooth muscle – found in walls of viscera and controlled by involuntary mechanisms; does not
appear striated because myofibrils organized more randomly
summation – force of individual twitches together
synapse – small gap in communication pathway of neurons
tetanus – sustained contraction without relaxation
threshold stimulus – cell remains unresponsive until an action potential is generated
transverse tubules (T tubules) – another set of membranous channels that extend inward as
invaginations from fiber’s membrane and pass all the way through the fiber (cell); each tubule opens
to outside extracellular environment
tropomyosin – a protein that is a part of actin filaments; covers the myosin head binding sites on
actin
troponin – a protein that is a part of actin filaments; calcium binding site
twitch – contractile response of a single muscle fiber to a muscle impulse
Z line – outer edge of I bands on either side
Essential Questions:
1. What are the three types of muscle?
2. What makes up the muscle organ?
3. What are the major components involved in muscle contraction?
4. How do muscles contract?
5. How are muscle fiber responses measured and analyzed?
Core Understandings:
1. The three types of muscle are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
2. Individual muscles are the organs of the muscular system. They include muscle tissue, nervous
tissue, blood, and other connective tissues.
3. Muscle fiber contraction results from the sliding movement of actin and myosin filaments.
4. Regulation of skeletal muscle contraction involves the nervous system, ATP, proteins like
troponin and tropomyosin, neurotransmitters, creatine phosphate, and calcium ions.
5. Muscle fiber response can be measured electrically and the electrical response analyzed.
Unit:
Nervous System
Description:
Thinking, remembering, moving, feeling, breathing, and being aware of the world all involve the
nervous system. A huge number of nerves convey information from the outside world to our brains.
Within our bodies nerves communicate electrochemically between all parts of the body and the brain.
The focus in this unit will be how the nerve impulse is generated and how it moves through the
nervous system.
Content Vocabulary:
action potential – basis for a nerve impulse; causes a bioelectric current to flow to adjacent portions
of the membrane
autonomic nervous system – controls effectors that are involuntary such as heart and smooth
muscle and various glands
axon – extensions of a neuron that send impulses; most neurons have only one axon
brainstem – bundle of nervous tissue that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord; contains the
midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata; functions in homeostasis, coordination of movement and
conduction of information to and from higher brain
cell body – rounded are of a neuron
central nervous system – consists of brain and spinal cord
cerebellum – large mass of tissue below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum and posterior to the
pons and medulla oblongata; functions in integrating sensory information concerning position of body
parts and coordinating complex skeletal movements as well as maintaining posture
cerebrum – two large masses (left and right); involved in higher brain functions like memory, reason,
intelligence, and personality
convergence – axons from different areas of nervous system that lead to the same neuron
dendrites – extensions of a neuron that receive electrochemical messages
depolarized – when the inside of the cell becomes less negative than the outside of the cell
diencephalon – located between the cerebral hemispheres and the midbrain and surrounds the third
ventricle; houses the thalamus, hypothalamus, and pineal glands
divergence – impulses leaving the same neuron my pass into several other output neurons
effectors – responsive structures that receive impulses from the peripheral nervous system
excitatory response – triggers an action potential by bringing membrane to the threshold
facilitation – when a neuron is subthreshold, is more excitable to incoming stimuli
hyperpolarization – when the membrane potential becomes overly negative
inhibitory response – prevent or slow the action potential
interneurons – carry nerve impulses between nerves in the CNS only
motor neurons (efferent fibers) – carry nerve impulse from the CNS to the PNS
myelin sheath – made by Schwann cells (a type of neuroglial cell); surrounds, protects, and
insulates axons in peripheral nervous system
nerve impulses – transmitting information in the form of electrochemical changes
nerves – bundles of axons
neuroglial cells – fill spaces, provide structural framework, produce myelin, and carry on
phagocytosis
neuron – nerve cells that are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system
neuronal pools – groups of neurons that make hundreds of synaptic connections with each other
and work together to perform a common function
neurotransmitters – biochemicals that carry signals across synapse causing either a excitatory or
inhibitory response
nodes of Ranvier – narrow gaps in the myelin sheath
peripheral nervous system – all other nerves other than those in spinal cord and brain
reflex arc – a nerve pathway consisting of a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron that
forms the structural and functional basis for a reflex
repolarization – when the membrane returns to its resting potential
resting potential – in a resting cell, the difference in electrical charge between the region inside the
membrane and the region outside of the membrane
sensory neurons (afferent fibers) – carry nerve impulses from PNS into CNS
sensory receptors – ends of peripheral nerves that detect changes in both inside and outside of
body
somatic nervous system – consciously controlled responses in skeletal muscle
synapse – junction or small physical gap between two neurons
threshold potential – when the neurons are depolarized sufficiently to reach a level that causes an
action potential; approximately -55mv
Essential Questions:
1. What are the main structures and functions of the nervous system?
2. What are neurons and what are the major parts of their structure?
3. What is a synapse and what is its main function?
4. How is a cell membrane usually polarized?
5. How is an action potential generated?
6. What is a nerve impulse?
7. What are neurotransmitters and what do they do?
8. How does the organization of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord help process and respond
to impulses?
9. What are nerves?
10. What is a nerve pathway?
11. What is the spinal cord?
12. What are the major parts of the brain?
13. What is the peripheral nervous system?
14. What is the autonomic nervous system?
Core Understandings:
1. The nervous system includes neurons and the brain, which acts to collect sensory information,
integrate the information, and respond to it.
2. Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system and contain a cell body, dendrites, and
an axon.
3. A synapse is a junction between two neurons or between a neuron and another cell where
neurotransmitters relay electrical impulse information.
4. A cell membrane is usually polarized as a result of an unequal ion distribution.
5. An action potential is generated when a membrane becomes depolarized.
6. A wave of action potentials is a nerve impulse.
7. Synaptic transmission relies on neurotransmitters that create either an excitatory or inhibitory
response.
8. How the nervous system processes and responds to nerve impulses reflects the organization of
neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
9. Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers (axons) that are sensory, motor, or mixed.
10. A nerve pathway is the route an impulse follows through the nervous system.
11. The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal.
12. The brain is divided into the cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebrum.
13. The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch from the brain
and spinal cord to all body parts. It is subdivided into the somatic and autonomic systems.
14. The autonomic nervous system functions without conscious effort. It regulates the visceral
activities that maintain homeostasis.