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Clauses
Independent and Subordinate Clauses
An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence.
Ex: Icy winds blew.
He shivered
A subordinate clause, although it has a subject and a verb, cannot stand by itself as
a complete sentence; it can only be part of a sentence. Subordinate clauses must be
attached or inserted into independent clauses to make sense.
Ex: Because night was falling as was the temperature.
Which caused him to make his way to shelter.
Ind.
Subord.
Attached to independent clause: The snow fell harder, which caused him to
make his way to shelter.
Which clause is independent and which is subordinate?
1. Because the film was sold out, the twins went to the mall.
2. The baby who captured everyone’s attention got the part in the commercial.
Independent and Subordinate (dependent) Clauses
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A clause is a group of words with its own subject and verb. There are two basic kinds of clauses:
independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence.
A subordinate clause, although it has a subject and a verb, cannot stand by itself as a complete
sentence; it can only be part of a sentence. Subordinate clauses must be attached or inserted into
independent clauses to make sense.
Understanding Independent and Subordinate Clauses
Label the following clauses as independent or subordinate on the line. In the space provided, rewrite the
subordinate clauses so that they are attached to or inserted into an independent clause.
1. __________ although the store was sold out of calculators
2. __________ sedum and butterfly bush are both fall blooming plants
3. __________ because the factory closed
4. __________ whenever the government funded one program for school children
5. __________ as soon as the Levin family returns from vacation
6. __________ the veterinarian arrived
7. __________ the route is difficult and dangerous
8. __________ which can’t be seen from here
9. __________ unless we get lost
10. __________ demand a fair hearing
Types of Subordinate Clauses
There are three types of subordinate clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun clauses.
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adjective and
modifies a noun or pronoun. They are introduced with words like that, which,
whom, whose, when, why, and where. An adjective clause follows the word it
modifies.
Ex: Kristen, who once worked for Dr. Zarfos, wants to go to medical
school.
The firefighters raced to the building that was engulfed in flames.
Essential and Nonessential Adjective Clauses
When an adjective clause is essential to the meaning of a sentence (it restricts the
noun it modifies to that particular person or thing), it should not be set off by
commas.
Ex: Please stop at the store where they sell fresh fish.
Only doctors who have this particular training are allowed to perform
the procedure.
When an adjective clause is nonessential (it is not necessary to identify the noun it
modifies), it is set off with commas.
Ex: Kelly’s Deli, which also carries a wonderful selection of cheeses, is on
the corner.
The patients, who all hope for greatly improved vision, have waited
many months for treatment.
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adjective and modifies a noun or pronoun.
They are introduced with words like that, which, whom, whose, when, why, and where. An adjective clause
follows the word it modifies.
Correcting Adjective Clauses
Underline the adjective clause in each sentence. Correct the punctuation of the adjective clauses in the
following sentences. Not all sentences will need corrections. Write whether each adjective clause is essential
(ess.) or nonessential (noness.) on the line provided.
1. __________ That is the doctor who treated my injured knee.
2. __________ The lake, that dominates the town, is nearly two miles wide.
3. __________ Jonathan hoped for a new neighbor who could join in his games.
4. __________ The plane, which was due in at 6:15 P.M., will not arrive until about 9:00 P.M.
5. __________ Weddings are the events, where I shoot my best photographs.
6. __________ Recent events that have occurred are tragic and heartbreaking.
7. __________ Cecil whose car is always shiny and clean offered to wash our car as well.
8. __________ Melvin has become the one person, whom you can always count on.
9. __________ You’ll find it in my bedroom drawers, where I keep my socks.
10. _________ The house which was more than two hundred years old had a ship’s mast at the center of its
staircase.
Types of Subordinate Clauses
There are three types of subordinate clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun clauses.
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adverb. It modifies a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Ex: Virgil used the computer every chance he could. (Every chance he could
modifies the verb used).
Nancy is much more studious than her sister is. (Than her sister is
modifies the adverb more studious).
Today, Stanley played far better than he usually does. (Than he usually
does modifies the adverb better).
When you use an adverb clause at the beginning of a sentence, follow it with a
comma. If you use an adverb clause at the end of a sentence, you do not need a
comma.
Ex: If you’re going to the grocery store, please bring home a gallon of milk.
Please bring home a gallon of milk if you’re going to the grocery store.
Adverb clauses often, but not always, start with a subordinating conjunction such as
after, although, because, before, if, so that, unless, when, where, whether, and
while.
Adverb Clauses
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An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adverb. It modifies a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb.
When you use an adverb clause at the beginning of a sentence, follow it with a comma. If you use an
adverb clause at the end of a sentence, you do not need a comma.
Understanding Adverb Clauses
Write an independent clause to attach to each of the following adverb clauses. When you write out the
complete sentences, be sure to punctuate the adverb clauses correctly.
1. wherever I look
2. even though the air was filled with moisture
3. until Michael got to high school
4. before you accept the position
5. than she was at the beginning of the course
6. that you expected to see her at the airport
7. unless you can change your ferry tickets
8. when the battle ended
9. after I’d left on my daily walk
10. so that eventually everyone woke up
Subordinate Clauses
Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun. This means that it
can function as a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, indirect object, object
of a preposition, or appositive. Noun clauses can have modifiers and compliments,
and they can come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
Words like these often start noun clauses: that, which, whatever, where, whether,
which, who, whoever, whom, and whose.
Ex: That the phone didn’t ring was entirely surprising. (subject)
That is why she moved. (predicate nominative)
The editor had no idea where the manuscript was. (direct object)
Adele was greatly valued for what she knew about biology. (OP)
The focus of the ad campaign, that frequent brushing promotes
Healthy teeth, appealed to the organization of dentists. (Appositive)
Ricky gave that girl he loved a present. IO
Neil Armstrong was a former astronaut. PN – a noun that renames the subject.
NOUN CLAUSES
Noun clauses can function as any part of a sentence that a regular noun can function as.
(S)
Subject: the main idea the sentence is about
(PN) Predicate Nominative: noun following a linking verb that renames the subject
(DO) Direct Object: noun following an action verb that answers Who? or What? about the verb
(IO) Indirect Object: noun between action verb and DO that answer To whom? or To what? about DO.
(OP) Object of Preposition: noun in the prepositional phrase
(APP) Appositive: noun that renames another noun
Noun clauses frequently begin with that, which, who, whom, whose, how, if, whatever, when, where, whether,
whichever, whoever, or whomever.
Underline each noun clause in the sentences below, and write the clauses function on the line provided.
1. ______ Whoever travels on the Yukon River in winter must account for the cold temperatures.
2. ______ The miners believed that they could find gold quickly.
3. ______ A frenzy of interest was caused by whoever found gold in Bonanza Creek.
4. ______ Hopeful miners occupied whatever claims they could find.
5. ______ Whoever heard of the Klondike gold strike traveled north, hoping to become rich.
6. ______ Many American miners were unprepared for how difficult the Klondike’s rugged terrain would be for
them.
7. ______ Whoever used the Yukon River as the main access route in the winter was caught in the ice and had
to be rescued.
8. ______ Among the thousands of miners who went to the Klondike, a large percentage were disappointed by
how little gold they found.
9. ______ Dreams of gold along the Yukon River gave whoever had a good imagination a reason to travel.
10. _____ Often, their only possessions were whatever they could carry on their backs.
Identify each clause as adjective, adverb, or noun.
11. ______ The indigenous people who live in the far north adapted sled dogs for use as transportation.
12. ______ They used dogs whenever they traveled.
13. ______ Early expeditions that settled colder northern regions would have been impossible without sled
dogs.
14. ______ Even though modes of travel have advanced, sled dogs still offer reliable transportation in subzero
climates.
15. ______ Sled-dog racing has evolved into a sport that is popular in colder parts of the world.
16. ______ Although small local races were held in the nineteenth century, a major sled-dog race was not
staged until 1908.
17. ______ Whoever wants to enter a sled-dog race today has a choice of more than 3,000 competitions.
18. ______ The number of competitions has increased every year since sled-dog racing was organized.
19. ______ The International Federation of Sled Dog Sports, which governs racing, was formed in 1986 to
promote the sport.
20. ______ Because its efforts were effective, sled-dog racing is being considered for inclusion in winter
athletic festivals.
Phrases
A phrase is a group of words used as a single part of speech. A phrase lacks a
subject, a verb, or both. It cannot be a sentence. There are three common kinds of
phrases: prepositional, verbal, and appositive phrases.
Prepositional Phrases
These consist of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of that object. It may
function as an adjective or adverb.
Adjective: Sue planned a party with music and dancing. (with music
and dancing tells what kind of party Sue had).
Adjective: She found the CDs and tapes in the box under her bed. (under
her bed tell in which box Sue found the CDs).
Adverb: Albert struggled into his jacket. (into his jacket describes the verb
struggled—it tells how Albert struggled).
Adverb: My friend is generous with her time. (with her time is modifying the
adjective generous).
HINT: Find out which word the prepositional phrase is modifying. Figure
out which part of speech that word is (noun, adjective, adverb, etc.). Based on
this, you will be able to tell which part of speech the prepositional phrase is
functioning as.
Phrases
There are 3 kinds of phrases: prepositional, verbal, and appositive phrases.
Verbal Phrases
There are 3 types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Participial Phrases
A participle is a verb form ending in –ing, -d, or –ed that acts as an adjective (it
tells us more about a noun or pronoun).
Ex: I closed the door. Closed is a VERB here, NOT a participle.
Ex: The closed door blocked my view. Closed is a PARTICIPLE.
A participial phrase is made up of a participle and all the words related to it
(objects, modifiers, and prepositional phrases). The entire phrase acts as an
adjective.
Ex: Swimming quickly toward the shore, Ryan thought eagerly
about a warm shower. (The participle swimming, the adverb
quickly, and the prepositional phrase toward the shore make up
the participial phrase that tells us more about Ryan.)
Ex: Jeffrey picked up the clothes scattered around his bedroom.
(The participle scattered and the prepositional phrase around
his bedroom make up the participial phrase that tells us more
about clothes.)
Phrases
There are 3 types of phrases: prepositional, verbal, and infinitive phrases.
Verbal Phrases
There are 3 types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Gerund Phrases
A gerund is a verb form ending in –ing that functions as a noun.
Ex: I ran yesterday. Ran is a VERB, NOT a gerund.
Ex: Running is fun. Running is a GERUND.
A gerund phrase is a phrase made up of a gerund and all of its modifiers and
compliments. The entire phrase functions as a noun. A gerund’s modifiers include
adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases.
Ex: Waiting for the school bus gives Henry time to read. (What
thing, or noun, gives Henry time to read?)
Ex: One of Henry’s favorite quiet times is waiting for the school
bus. (What thing is Henry’s favorite quiet time?)
Ex: Jim, however, hated waiting for the school bus. (What thing
does Jim hate?)
Ex: He always stopped for snacks before waiting for the school
bus. (What thing did Jim stop for snacks before?)
Verbal Phrases
There are 3 types of verbal phrases: participles, gerunds, and infinitives.
Infinitive Phrases
An infinitive phrase is made up of an infinitive and all its modifiers. They can
function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.
Ex: It’s pleasant to eat strawberries with whipped cream. (adverb
describing the adjective “pleasant”)
Ex: The general intends to charge at the enemy’s flanks. (noun)
Sometimes the “to” of an infinitive is left out. It’s understood.
Ex: Eli helped [to] build the deck.
VERBALS: (Looks like a verb but acts as a noun or adjective!)
Gerunds:
 Look like verbs but act as NOUNS.
 End in –ing
Ex: I like exercising.
She hates cooking.
Gerund phrases also act as nouns.
Ex: She couldn’t help spilling the pitcher of ice water.
Participles:
 Look like verbs but act as ADJECTIVES.
 End in –ing OR –ed
Ex: That is a roasting pan.
She ran into the closed door.
Participial phrases also act as adjectives.
Ex: Jeffrey picked up the clothes scattered around his bedroom.
Soaked by the rain, the cat came through the front door.
Infinitives:
 Look like verbs but act as NOUNS.
 “To” + verb (To run, to play, to dance)
Ex: I like to run.
Infinitives phrases also act as nouns.
Ex: I like to run in the morning.
The general intends to charge at the enemy’s flank.
PRACTICE: Identify whether each sentence contains a gerund, participle, or infinitive.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I plunged my hands, covered with garlic, into a bath of lemon water.
Meeting every voter, the president spent the day campaigning in our town.
It’s pleasant to eat strawberries with whipped cream.
Elia suggested shooting hoops in the park this afternoon.
Susan helped to build the deck.
Sitting on a crowded bus left us exhausted and hungry.
The entire incident, filmed by a helicopter crew, dominated the evening news.
Phrases
There are 3 types of phrases: prepositional, verbal, and appositive phrases.
Appositive Phrases
An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to another noun or pronoun to
identify, rename, or explain it.
Ex: Kim’s specialty, pound cake, tastes really great.
(specialty = pound cake; pound cake is identifying Kim’s specialty.)
Ex: His favorite writer, Annie Dillard, will read from her work
tonight.
(writer = Annie Dillard; Annie Dillard is identifying who his
favorite writer is.)
Some appositives are essential, meaning that they cannot be removed from the
sentence because they are essential to the sentence’s meaning. Essential
appositives are NOT set off by commas.
Ex: The short story “Fire and Ice” has a sad ending.
An appositive phrase is simply an appositive with one or more modifiers; it is a
noun or pronoun with modifiers placed next to another noun or pronoun to add
information or details. The modifiers can be adjectives, adjective phrases, or other
words that function as adjectives.
Ex: The desk, the roll-top oak one, is where I write.
Appositives and appositive phrases can be compound.
Ex: Elizabeth Bowen, an Irish novelist and short-story writer,
was a perceptive observer of middle class life.
Sentence Structures
There are 4 different types of sentence structures in the English language. These 4 types of
sentences are:
 Simple: 1 independent clause and no dependent clause
 Compound: 2 independent clauses and no dependent clauses
 Complex: 1 independent clause and 1 or more dependent clauses
 Compound-complex: 2 independent clauses and 1 or more dependent clauses
Examples:
Simple: I like going to school.
Compound: I like going to school, and I like doing my homework.
Complex: I like going to school when it is sunny.
Compound-complex: I like going to school, and I like doing my homework when it is sunny.
A lesson on sentence structure and love:
_____ One fate-filled and sunny afternoon, Bill and Kathy drove through the English countryside
together for a beautiful picnic lunch.
_____ Kathy cooked and baked for an entire day in anticipation of the picnic.
_____ She meticulously roasted a chicken with bacon and rosemary and baked a fabulously
decadent three-layered chocolate cake.
_____ Bill, delightfully jocund and witty in every way, was grateful to Kathy for remembering his
birthday.
_____ Although Bill was quite famished as well as eternally grateful to Kathy, he had to refrain
from eating the main course and the dessert.
_____ You see my dear reader, Bill was deathly allergic to both chicken and chocolate!
_____ Kathy, feeling jejune and small in every way, was completely mortified, and, while she was
blushing furiously, she tumultuously and silently vowed never to cook for anyone again.
_____ After Kathy experienced a meditative and nirvana-like moment of enlightenment, her
cheeks ceased to burn; she managed to pry herself out of the vice-like grip of
embarrassment.
_____ Kathy realized Bill had forgiven her completely, and she promised neither to cook him
poisonous-chicken nor to bake him chocolate death-cake ever again.
_____ Kathy and Bill lived happily and healthfully ever after on lamb, steak, pork, fruit and
amaretto-custard pies, lemon-frosted sugar cookies, and raspberry-sauce drenched
cheesecakes; indeed, the couple went on to blissfully enjoy a lifetime of chicken-less and
chocolate-less picnics and sunsets together!
_____ A content and blithe-filled Bill considered himself a lucky, happy, and well-fed man while
Kathy lived with, laughed with, cried with, and loved Bill for her entire life without ever
missing chocolate or chicken.
MLA Formatting Guidelines/Basic Format
The first-give author’s name or a book with a single author's name appears in last name, first
name format. The basic form for a book citation is:
Lastname, Firstname. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of
Publication. Medium of Publication.
Book with more than one author:
Gillespie, Paula, and Neal Lerner. The Allyn and Bacon Guide to Peer Tutoring.
Boston: Allyn, 2000. Print.
Anthology or Collection (e.g. Collection of Essays)
To cite the entire anthology or collection, list by editor(s) followed by a comma and "ed." or, for
multiple editors, "eds" (for edited by). This sort of entry is somewhat rare. If you are citing a
particular piece within an anthology or collection (more common), see A Work in an Anthology,
Reference, or Collection below.
Hill, Charles A., and Marguerite Helmers, eds. Defining Visual Rhetorics. Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. Print.
Poem or Short Story Examples:
Burns, Robert. "Red, Red Rose." 100 Best-Loved Poems. Ed. Philip Smith. New
York: Dover, 1995. 26. Print.
Kincaid, Jamaica. "Girl." The Vintage Book of Contemporary American Short
Stories. Ed. Tobias Wolff. New York: Vintage, 1994. 306-07. Print.
Article in a Magazine
Cite by listing the article's author, putting the title of the article in quotations marks, and
italicizing the periodical title. Follow with the date of publication. Remember to abbreviate the
month. The basic format is as follows:
Author(s). "Title of Article." Title of Periodical Day Month Year: pages.
Medium of publication.
Poniewozik, James. "TV Makes a Too-Close Call." Time 20 Nov. 2000: 70-71.
Print.