Download Participant Booklet Network Meeting Term Three

Sentence Structure in the K-6 Classroom
When asking students to define a sentence, a common response is that it has a capital letter
and a full stop. As Collerson, (1997) points out, this is a graphological definition which
doesn’t necessarily help students make decisions when writing. The definition does not help
them see the complexities amongst ideas within sentences when reading either. Sometimes
sentences are discussed as complete ideas but even this is difficult to articulate, as students
read and produce more complex texts.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
In thinking about a grammatical definition of a sentence, the notion of a clause becomes
important as clauses are combined in a range of ways, depending on the purpose of the text.
The use of one clause or combination of clauses determines the types of sentences
constructed.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
A sentence may be described as simple, compound or complex. Rather than thinking about
using a ‘variety’ of these sentences, we can consider types of sentences and how they
develop meaning for a reader. For example, in narrative texts there may be times where
simple sentences are used to convey fast-paced action. On the other hand, we may have
complex sentences containing adjectival clauses to assist in describing character and setting
at various stages within the text. We may also find complexity when a writer uses dialogue to
convey both character and events.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Students tend to write the way they speak, constructing run-on sentences. This is
understandable as students bring their oral language to the written mode. As with all
grammatical resources we can look at how sentence structure differs between oral and
written texts. This needs to be pointed out explicitly through the use of meta language.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Clauses
A clause is the basic unit of meaning in English. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject
and a verb and can stand alone as a unit of information.
In general, there are two types of clauses:
• A main or independent clause that must have a finite verb.
• A dependent clause that comprises a unit of information, but which depends on its relationship with
the main clause for it to make complete sense. A dependent clause may have a finite or non-finite
verb. For example:
Finite dependent clause: I left the field before the gates were closed.
Non-finite dependent clause: Realising my mistake, I burst into tears.
Phrases
A phrase or word group is a grammatical unit that does not have the structure of a clause or sentence
and cannot be analysed in terms of subject, verb and object. A phrase is a group of words that forms
part of a clause and gives information about the circumstances of the process or thing that it is adding
meaning to.
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In general, there are five types of phrases or word groups:
• noun groups
• verb groups
• prepositional phrases
• adjectival phrases
• adverbial phrases.
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and is followed by a noun group. Students use
prepositional phrases to build up description. Prepositional phrases can be adjectival (doing the job of
an adjective) or adverbial (doing the job of an adverb). Examples of prepositional phrases are:
in the morning (time)
by the side of the road (place)
with great enthusiasm (manner)
Prepositional phrases are readily identifiable because they begin with a preposition. They locate
nouns, pronouns and noun groups in time, space or manner/circumstance.
Common prepositions include:
at, on, before, in, from, since, for, during, to, until, after, like, by, into, onto, off, out, above, over, under,
below, across, after, around, beside, between, down, past, near, through, without, of, unlike, despite
An adjectival phrase is a group of words that functions as an adjective. Adjectival phrases can be
located before or after the noun that they modify or they can function as the complement of a clause.
For example:
Premodification: The extremely large caterpillar ate the leaf.
Postmodification: The caterpillar of large proportions ate the leaf.
Complement: The caterpillar was extremely large.
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb. For example:
Peter completed the task very skilfully without delay.
Georgina walked across the park quite casually.
Particular prepositions are used with certain nouns, verbs and adjectives. Note the accepted
combinations of the following words:
similar to, by chance, on foot, account for, consist of, inconsistent with, rely on, long for, different
from/to, compared to/with, contrast to, equal to
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
A clause represents a slice of experience.
WHERE?
WHO / WHAT IS
WHAT’S
TAKING PART?
HAPPENING?
(Participant)
(Process)
the cat
was smiling
In the treetop
HOW?
mysteriously.
CLAUSE
One of the best ways of introducing students to a new grammatical feature is to use a ‘probe
question’, which draws their attention to the meaning or function of the feature.
Clause Probe Questions:
What is happening?
Who or what is taking part?
What gives us more information about the activity (when, where, how etc.)?
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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WHERE?
WHO / WHAT IS
TAKING PART?
WHAT’S HAPPENING?
HOW?
In the treetop
the cat
was smiling
mysteriously.
Circumstance
Participant
Process
Circumstance
prepositional phrase
noun group
verb group
adverb
CLAUSE
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
(When introducing students to grammar from a functional perspective, it is not always a
matter of whether something is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ but whether students find the
metalanguage useful for exploring the meaning of text.)
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
A common way of identifying a clause is to look for the verb group representing the activity.
Each clause will typically have one verb / verb group.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Simple sentences
A simple sentence consists of a single independent or main clause. It does not have another clause
functioning as one of its elements. A simple sentence may also include one or more phrases.
For example:
main clause
prepositional phrase
Kim walked along the track.
adverbial phrase
main clause
At exactly 9 pm every night, David turned off the lights.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Note that the above sentences contain only one verb. From year one, students should begin to
understand that a simple sentence expresses a single idea, represented grammatically by a single
independent clause.Note also that simple sentences are not necessarily short ones:
The Dursleys bought Dudley and Piers large chocolate ice creams at the entrance.
Simple sentences are simple in terms of their structure (that is, a single clause), not necessarily in
terms of their content:
A striking quality of this passage, and indeed of this whole volume, is its beautifully compressed, poetic
language.
The sentence above is a simple sentence consisting of a single clause, but its meaning is not ‘simple’.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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We can combine clauses in different ways to make different types of sentences:
-Compound sentences
-Complex Sentences
Compound sentences
In compound sentences, there are two or more independent clauses that are linked. Each
independent or main clause is able to stand on its own and the meanings of all clauses are of equal
importance.
Because compound sentences coordinate independent clauses equally, they tend to use the additive
conjunctions and, or, or the contrastive conjunction but.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
In stage one, students should begin to understand that simple connections can be made between
ideas using a compound sentence with two or more clauses and coordinating conjunctions.
Words used to combine independent clauses include:
and; so; but; or; yet; and so; not only...but also; neither...nor; either...or
These are called ‘coordinators’ or ‘coordinating conjunctions’.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
For example:
John was getting tired but he was determined to finish his bushwalk.
John ate his lunch and then he continued on his way.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Students often have trouble knowing how to punctuate compound sentences. A common error is to
join them with a comma instead of a conjunction. This is sometimes called a ‘comma splice’:
I was late, I caught a taxi. INCORRECT
I was late so I caught a taxi. CORRECT
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Complex sentences
A complex sentence consists of one (or more) main clause/s and one (or more) dependent
clause/s.
A dependent clause provides a separate piece of information to the main clause but is dependent on
the main clause to make meaning or sense. For example, consider the dependent clause in bold type
below. It could not stand on its own. It depends on ideas in the main clause for its meaning.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
For as long as she could remember, Olivia had enjoyed playing piano.
Complex sentences can include both complex and compound elements. Consider the example below.
Two kookaburras flew into a tree and cackled loudly as they scanned the nearby bush for food.
The coordinating conjunction ‘and’ links the compound elements of this sentence, while the
subordinating conjunction ‘as’ links the complex element.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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Complex sentences generally involve greater complexity of thought as students learn to express more
subtle and intricate relationships between ideas. They are often used, for example, to convey the
logical reasoning in argumentation and explanation.
Although even young students are capable of using complex sentences, older students often still have
problems with complex sentences that involve higher order thinking skills.
Independent clauses are known as ‘main clauses’ or ‘principal clauses’. Dependent clauses are also
referred to as ‘subordinate’ clauses.
It is important that students understand the difference between main and subordinate clauses and
that they can be combined to make connections between and to expand upon ideas. Dependent
clauses are generally joined to an independent clause using subordinating conjunctions.
Different types of conjunctions are used to express different types of relationships between ideas.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
TIME
WHEN?
after, before, when, as
HOW LONG?
as long as, since, until, while
HOW OFTEN?
whenever, every time
She disappeared when it was her turn to wash up.
Before I decide, I want to talk to Brian.
I haven’t seen her since she moved to Western Australia.
Until your ankle heals, you will have to stay at home.
I feel frustrated whenever I hear her speak.
Every time he calls, I pretend I’m not at home.
MANNER
MEANS
COMPARISON
by, through, with
as if, like, as though, as
By working overtime, she managed to finish the project.
I couldn’t lie as he does.
He looked as if he needed a good rest.
CAUSE
REASON
PURPOSE
CONDITION
CONCESSION
ADDING
REPLACING
as, because, since, in case, as
a result of
so that, in order to, so as to,
in order that
if, as long as, in case, unless,
on condition that
although, even though, even
if, while, whereas, despite,
much as
besides, as well as
Football cards are banned at our school because they cause arguments.
Since you obviously aren’t interested, let’s leave it.
They went outside in order to see what the noise was.
We left early so that we could get a parking space.
Never sit on a nest of ants unless you are wearing cast-iron pants.
If she wants to join us, she’ll have to hurry up.
Even though they weren’t hungry, they ate a full meal.
While recognising his skill, I don’t think he is right for this job.
except for, other than, instead
of, rather than
Instead of attacking them, the wolf led them out of the forest.
Besides working full-time, she was volunteering at the shelter.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Typically, a dependent clause can go either before or after the independent clause. This gives
us flexibility in terms of what we want to use as a starting point in the sentence. Note that,
when a dependent clause comes first in a sentence, it is usually followed by a comma.
For example:
It got warmer and warmer as they sailed further and further into the south.
As they sailed further and further into the south, it got warmer and warmer.
Interestingly, you can’t reverse the order of clauses in a compound sentence. This is a useful
test if you aren’t sure which is which.
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For example:
He climbed into bed and he fell fast asleep. CORRECT
And he fell fast asleep, he climbed into bed. INCORRECT
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses provide further information about the time, place and manner in which the verb (the
action) occurs. Adverbial clauses usually begin with a subordinating conjunction that indicates their
relationship with the main clause. (See examples within table on previous page.)
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Adjectival clauses
Adjectival clauses (sometimes called relative clauses) qualify or add meaning to nouns or nominal
groups in the main clause. Relative clauses are usually introduced by relative pronouns such as who,
which, that, whose, whom.
Katya, who had never enjoyed the outdoors, was forced to go for a bushwalk.
I read the book Mr Wilson gave me. (Which/that has been ellipsed)
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Verbs
Our experiences are generally made up of different kinds of doings, happenings and states.
We could refer to these as ‘Processes’.
‘Processes’ typically take the form of verbs (or verb groups). ‘Verb Group’ is often the
preferred term, even though it might consist of only a single word.
Meaning
doings, happenings, states (processes)
Form
verb / verb group
Through verb groups, we can express different aspects of our experience:
-action verbs / what we do
-saying verbs / what we say
-sensing verbs / what we think, feel, perceive
-relating verbs / how we create links between bits of information
-existing verbs / how we refer to things that simply ‘exist’
Through verb groups, students can begin to identify visual representations of characters’
actions, reactions, speech and thought processes in narratives.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
What is the child
doing?
What is the dog
thinking?
Describe the setting.
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ACTION VERBS: We find examples of action verbs in most texts, but particularly in texts
such as procedures, recounts and narratives.
Procedures, for example, are mainly about actions in the form of commands.
Put the soil into the container. Add water to the soil. Mix the soil and water together.
It is important that students start to move from general words such as ‘cut’ to more specific
words, for example ‘slice’, ‘dice’, ‘fillet’.
This is important in more advanced procedures where action verbs need to be quite precise
so that the procedure will be successful (e.g. dissolve, dilute, transfer, insert or filter instead
of simply ‘add’ or ‘put’).
When recounting what happened on a school excursion, we might encourage students to
make the experience come alive through their choice of action words. These could be
brainstormed in preparation for writing.
In Narratives, we could look for an ‘action sequence’ in the story to model to students how
professional writers create a sense of dynamic action, as in this story, where Rikki-tikki, the
mongoose, is fighting with Nagaina, the cobra. (Please note that not all verbs are
highlighted)
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Rikki-tikki was bounding all round Nagaina, keeping just out of reach of
her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals.
Nagaina gathered herself together, and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki
jumped up and backward. Again and again and again she struck, and
each time her head came with a whack on the matting of the verandah,
and she gathered herself together like a watch-spring.
Then Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to get behind her, and Nagaina spun
round to keep her head to his head, so that the rustle of her tail on the
matting sounded like dry leaves blown along by the wind... as Nagaina
plunged into the rat-hole where she and Nag used to live, his little white
teeth were clenched on her tail. ... He held on savagely, and stuck out
his feet to act as brakes on the dark slope of the hot, moist earth. ... The
grass quivered again, and Rikki-tikki, covered with dirt, dragged himself
out of the hole leg by leg, licking his whiskers. Rikki-tikki shook some of
the dust out of his fur and sneezed. ”It is all over,” he said. “The widow
will never come out again.''
If we want to build up a character in a particular way, we might use more ‘evaluative’ action
verbs. For example, rather than saying, ‘Sam walked down the street’, we can represent Sam
positively (Sam skipped down the street) or negatively (Sam slunk down the street).
When working with action verbs, it is a good idea to get students to act out the verbs,
reinforcing the fact that they refer to physical activity.
Action verbs are often used in a metaphorical way:
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The Sea
Deep glass-green seas
Chew rocks
With their green-glass jaws.
But little waves
creep in
and nibble softly at the sand.
Lilith Norman
Not all action verbs represent physical activities. Sometimes they’re relatively abstract.
Can you manage alright?
She retained her sense of humour.
The inflation rate has increased lately.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
SAYING VERBS:
Sometimes experience is not represented directly, but is reported verbally.
ASK
DENY
PLEAD
RESPOND
SAY
SUGGEST
CONTINUE
STAMMER
IMPLY
REPLY
SCREAM
RETELL
TELL
MURMUR
REPORT
SHOUT
Saying verbs are most commonly found in stories, where we get to know the characters by
the way they speak and interact with others. In the following passage, for example, J.K
Rowling could have simply said that Dudley was a belligerent, spoilt child, but instead gives
an insight into his personality through the choice of saying verbs.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
“Make it move,” he whined at his father. Uncle Vernon tapped on the glass, but
the snake didn’t budge.
“Do it again,” Dudley ordered. Uncle Vernon rapped the glass smartly with his
knuckles, but the snake just snoozed on.
“This is boring,” Dudley moaned. He shuffled away.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, J.K Rowling
Students can explore saying verbs by reading the lines aloud in the manner suggested by the
saying verb: “Don’t hit me! he blubbered, stammered, croaked, hissed, whimpered.”
When looking at saying verbs, we can also deal with such matters as the difference between
direct and indirect speech and the punctuation of direct speech.
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SENSING VERBS:
Sensing verbs reflect processes of our ‘internal world’. They are typically used only in relation
to humans – or non-humans given human-like qualities – describing what they think, feel,
desire and perceive. The following are some examples.
know
reflect
comprehend
believe
imagine
forget
remember
recollect
realise
thinking
decide
consider
recall
hypothesise
wonder
understand
assume
recognise
infer
feeling and wanting
like
hate
dislike
want
wish
need
fear
enjoy
perceiving
see
taste
hear
smell
observe
notice
sense
Sensing verbs can give us insight into the characters of a story by describing what is going
on in their minds. They are often used when characters reflect on the action or evaluate what
is happening in the story.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
“But then,” thought Alice, “shall I never get any older than I am now? That’ll be
a comfort, one way – never to be an old woman – but then – always to have
lessons to learn! Oh I shouldn’t like that!” … But a few minutes later she
heard a voice outside. “Mary Ann! Mary Ann!” said the voice. “Fetch me my
gloves this moment!” Then came a little pattering of feet on the stairs. Alice
knew it was the rabbit coming to look for her, and she trembled till she shook
the house, quite forgetting that she was now a thousand times larger than the
rabbit and had no reason to be afraid of it.
Lewis Carroll
Sensing verbs are concerned not only with people’s thoughts, but with their feelings and
desires. We often find people expressing their emotions in texts such as poems, songs and
blogs.
Sensing verbs also encompass actions of perception – those that involve the use of our
senses: seeing, hearing, tasting and smelling.
Thinking verbs are used to express processes of cognition and can feature in texts such as
arguments and discussions (e.g. it is thought that…; I believe that…; I wonder whether…) where
we are interested in people’s ideas and opinions or in stories where a character is reflecting:
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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This is a hospital, he thought. I am in a hospital. But he could remember
nothing. He lay back on his pillow, looking at the ceiling and wondering what
had happened.
Beware of the Dog, R. Dahl
RELATING VERBS:
Alice
was
now more than nine feet tall
We call these ‘relating verbs’. The most common relating verbs are the verbs ‘be’ and ‘have’
and variations on these.
am, is, are
was, were
mean
become
turn into
seem
appear
being
represent
remain
is called
equal
symbolise
having
has, have, had
possess
own
include
comprise
lack
encompass
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
In some cases, a link is being made between the thing being described and its description.
Thing being described
Eagles
Relating verb
possess
Description
strong beaks.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
In other cases, the link is being made between a thing and how it is being identified or
defined.
Thing being identified
The land
Relating verb
is symbolised by
Identifier
the colour red.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
EXISTING VERBS:
Another type of verb is where there is no action or relationship being described, simply a
state:
There was an old house on the hill.
There is a hole in your jeans.
There are no decent shows on television.
There was nothing to do.
There was not a breath of air stirring.
These are typically introduced by there (refers to the existence of something, not a place).
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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In front of the house there was an untidy garden, and there was a green
hedge separating the garden from the lane. He was looking at the hedge when
he saw the sign. …There was something written on the board with white
paint…There were three words…
Beware of the Dog, R. Dahl
LOOKING AT FORM: THE VERB GROUP
In representing processes, we use the verb group. A verb group can consist of a single word
(e.g. He wrote a letter.) or a number of words (e.g. He might have been going to write a
letter.). We refer to a verb by using its base form (e.g. come, read, eat). The base form
typically provides the ‘content’ of the verb – ‘What’s going on?’
Verb groups help locate an action or state in time through the use of tense. The two main
tenses of English are the simple present tense and the simple past tense. These tenses are
formed simply by using or changing the base form.
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THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE:
The simple present tense can be used to indicate a variety of perspectives on time:
meaning
simple present tense
right now / commentary
Here they come!
He knows what I mean.
on-going states
She is in Grade 2.
habitual actions
I clean my teeth every day.
timeless
The planets orbit the sun.
referring to the future (if scheduled activity)
They leave on Sunday.
referring to the past when narrating in
And then he just hits me for no reason.
dramatic fashion (‘historical present’)
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THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE:
The simple past tense can be used to represent a variety of perspectives on time:
meaning
simple past tense
point in time
Shakespeare died in 1616.
on-going states in the past
They were my favourite toys.
habitual actions in the past
We wrote to each other daily.
hypothesising
If they studied hard they would pass the test.
politeness
I wondered whether you would like to come.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Many verbs are irregular in the past tense.
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Other Aspects of Time:
The ‘progressive’ aspect allows us to specify an on-going action that is unfinished,
incomplete or only temporary. He is studying French; they were discussing the problem.
In this case, the verb group consists of an auxiliary (helping verb) and a participle. Typically,
the function of the auxiliary is to locate the action in time (is vs. was). The auxiliary agrees
with the subject (he was talking vs. we were talking).
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
VERB GROUP
auxiliary (‘be’)
-‘ing’ participle
is
studying
were
discussing
was
talking
Sometimes we refer to a progressive action that was interrupted by another action:
While she was talking, Ibrahim walked in.
The progressive can also be used to refer to an action in the future:
We are going to the zoo tomorrow.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Other Aspects of Time:
The ‘perfect’ aspect refers to an event in the past that is finished or complete but that relates
to a subsequent event. If we say, for example, They have gone to the movies, there is an
expectation that they will be coming back later. Compare this with, They went to the movies –
an event over and done. The verb again consists of an auxiliary and a participle, but this time
the auxiliary is the verb ‘have’ and the participle is an –‘ed’ (or past) participle.
VERB GROUP
auxiliary (‘have’)
-‘ed’ participle
has
walked
have
discussed
had
hoped
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A problem here is that many –ed participles are irregular. Several end in –en (he has spoken;
they have driven; she has eaten). Others are quite unpredictable (we have brought; you had
taught; you have said; she has put).
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Other Auxiliaries:
Apart from auxiliaries that locate an action in time (they are playing), there are auxiliaries
that function to indicate the degree of certainty surrounding an activity. These are called
‘modal’ auxiliaries. Here is a list of verb groups consisting of modal auxiliaries plus the base
form.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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modal auxiliary
base form
might
enrol
must
read
could
see
would
consider
should
leave
may
notice
can
do
VERB GROUP
There are other auxiliaries which aren’t strictly modals, but which perform similar functions:
you need to pay; they have to leave; we ought to visit her; we had better hurry; we didn’t
dare speak.
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Other Aspects of Time:
Future Time: Another auxiliary is will – generally used to indicate and action in the future as
in these sentences from J.R.R. Tolkeien’s The Lord of the Rings:
He will destroy Gondor.
“I’ll go with Sam.”
Elvish forlorn trees will grow there.
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It is important that students understand that there are various ways to refer to future time.
Note that there are other ways of referring to the future in English. We can also use the
present progressive (I am seeing James on Thursday), the simple present tense (We leave at
six tomorrow), the form ‘be going to’ (I am going to see James on Thursday), or ‘be about to’
for events in the very near future (I’m about to leave). This can be a confusing area for ESL
students.
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Look at how the following poem uses three different verb forms to refer to future time:
When I grow up
I’m going to be rich and famous
By inventing the antidote
To the common chocolate.
But then I’ll eat as many as I can
And call it Research.
Bill Condon
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MULTI-WORD VERB GROUPS
We often find additional words in the verb group. Sometimes, these are small words such as
prepositions and adverbs that are added after the verb.
wake up
sit down
get out
put up with
settle down
get away with
give up on
catch on
turn up
give in
This type of verb is typically used in informal spoken contexts. When students move into the
written mode in educational contexts, they would generally need to use more ‘academic’
versions:
everyday
formal
get up
rise
give in
concede
put up with
tolerate
head off
depart
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Sometimes we need to add a noun to specify the content of the verb group, particularly in
combination with verbs such as give, have, do and take. Again, there are often more formal
equivalents:
everyday
formal
have a bath
bathe
do a jig
dance
give a hug
embrace
have a go
attempt
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
The advantage of the everyday versions is that you can extend the meaning by adding to the
noun (have a nice hot bath; give a long hearty hug).
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Another way in which we make multi-word verb groups is to include a verb that tells us more
about the timing or the duration of the action:
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
She continued to cry.
They began to climb the cliff.
It started to rain.
They kept on trying.
He finished counting the beans.
We stopped looking.
It caused him to panic.
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As you can see, the verb group can become quite lengthy:
He has been wanting to get started all morning.
Maggie might have been trying to say something important.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
NEGATIVES:
When we form the negative, we simply add ‘not’ after the auxiliary:
auxiliary
‘not’
we
could
not
see
he
had
not
eaten
she
is
not
sleeping
they
might
not
notice
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
But the simple present and simple past tense do not have auxiliaries. So what can we do? We
need to insert an auxiliary, so we use: do
simple present and
auxiliary ‘do’
‘not’
base verb
past tenses
he brought
did
not
bring
she wants
does
not
want
they like
do
not
like
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
Negatives, of course, can be contracted:
They have not remembered.
They haven’t remembered.
We were not doing anything.
We weren’t doing anything.
I do not play the piano.
I don’t play the piano.
The contraction of the negative in the future tense is irregular:
She will not eat her dinner.
She won’t eat dinner.
Verb groups can provide detailed information about the nature of an activity and deserve
more attention than they generally receive in interpreting and creating texts.
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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Finite and non-finite verbs and infinitives
The main clause of a sentence needs a verb to locate its events in time. A finite verb has a subject
and locates an event in time. For example:
The boy stumbled.
In the above sentence, the finite verb stumbled has a subject (The boy) and it is located in time (past
tense).
Similarly, in the complex sentence below, both verbs (felt, set) are finite, as both have a subject (he,
Daniel) and locate events in the past tense.
Because he felt confident, Daniel set off.
In contrast, non-finite verbs do not have a subject and do not locate an event in time. They indicate
an incomplete happening. For example:
Feeling confident, Daniel set off.
Successful main clauses (e.g. Daniel set off) always have a finite verb. The form of the verb that uses ‘to
...’ (e.g. to feel) is called the infinitive.
non-finite verb group/dependent clause
finite verb
Beginning to feel confident, Daniel set off.
Non-finite verbs usually occur in dependent clauses, not in main clauses by themselves. In main
clauses they may be part of a complex verb group. For example:
complex verb group
Justine expected to graduate with honours.
Here the finite verb (past tense) in the main clause, expected, is part of a complex verb group that also
contains the infinitive to graduate.
Non-finite verbs do not have a specific subject, nor do they carry the sentence tense. Non-finite verbs
include:
• –ing and –ed participles (Hoping for recognition…; Honoured by the award…)
• Infinitives (To leave with so many prizes was more than Justine had anticipated).
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
The Noun Group:
The noun group is the way we are able to describe people, places and things and it is the last
which is the most difficult and therefore the most important when learning how to write.
When we have abstract concepts like pollution, environment, culture realised as nouns we
are able to say a lot about them in a short space. For example:
The local environment of Sydney, which is very polluted, ...
noun
This is an extended noun group, which as well as an adjective uses an adjectival phrase and
an adjectival clause to add information about the noun.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Oral language differs from written language and this is demonstrated by the choices we
make when writing or speaking.
Children’s writing is often characterised by a clause pattern which includes an ‘actor’ and an
action verb/material process, for instance I went; I played; I ate rather than the use of
extended noun groups. This is to be expected because, as Halliday has pointed out, it is
written language that is characterised by the extended noun group as a way of compacting
and manipulating information.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
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As young children develop their writing, they use their main resource, which is their own
experience with oral language. The writing process is a reflective one and the writer
composes and rehearses using familiar voices. Writing is developed by interaction with both
other speakers and writers, through the process of speaking and reading. However if all the
familiar voices reflect only the writer’s daily oral interactions this oral mode will also be
reflected in the child’s writing. It is the child’s interaction with the written mode which will be
most helpful in developing their own writing.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
The noun group is the basic element in language for building abstractions; its use is the main
indicator of the written mode and it is the key to successful writing in the mandatory years of
schooling, and beyond. If students are able to master the use of the noun group it gives
them the power to manipulate text, to give prominence to important information in their
writing and to build tension and suspense in literary texts. For example:
Actor/action verb and relating verb: I went to the beach and I had a great day.
Extended noun group: I had a great day at the beach.
Building suspense: A great day at the beach is what I had expected but...
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Supporting young students to develop the use of the extended noun group prepares them
for the more abstract concepts that they will encounter in upper primary and secondary
school. Being able to develop extended noun groups will help students with both their
reading and writing as they will more easily be able to manipulate their own texts and to
understand others. When developing oral or written expository texts, for instance, it is vital to
move away from the more spoken mode and to remove the actor, to give authority to the
argument. For example:
Actor/action verb: We shouldn’t keep animals in zoos because it is cruel.
Extended noun group: The incarceration of innocent animals is cruel because it serves no
purpose other than to amuse and entertain visitors to the zoo.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
-Adjectival phrases and clauses follow right after a noun and add information to that noun.
E.g. The worried little girl who had just met a wolf
-If they are removed, in the same way that adjectives can be removed, the noun group still
makes sense, as does the sentence it is in. E.g. The girl...
-Adjectival phrases start with a preposition and usually answer the questions Where? With
what?
-Adjectival phrases are those groups of words which we teach on the early years in
mathematics to help students develop the language of position e.g. in the circle, under the
tree, behind me
Adjectival clauses usually start with a trigger word ‘Who’ for people ‘Which’ for things and
‘That’ for people and things
For example: The dark forest, which was dangerous to walk through, was her only way home
to the sweet little cottage in the glen.
The forest was her only way home to the cottage.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Looking at Form: The Noun Group
A noun group can consist of a single word (e.g. Toad) or can be expanded to include very
lengthy descriptions.
Mole and Ratty
They
were rowing
noticed
It
was
The rat
Toad
disembarked.
had bought
Participant
Noun group / pronoun
Process
Verb group
the tiny wooden boat.
a handsome, dignified old
house of mellowed brick, with
well-kept lawns reaching down
to the river’s edge.
one of the richest houses in
these parts.
a shiny new canary yellow gipsy
caravan with red wheels.
Participant
Noun group
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
The noun group is a valuable language resource as it can be extended in many ways to
provide rich and detailed information about the person or thing engaged in the process.
Noun groups are especially important in setting the scene or describing a character in a
narrative. They are important in presenting information about a class of things in information
reports. When students are reading, it is useful if they can see the noun group as ‘a chunk of
information’ rather than a string of individual words, as in the following sentence:
I felt like throttling
those two scruffy cats on the roof that were yowling all night.
NOUN GROUP
In assessing students’ literacy, we could consider how well our students are exploiting the
possibilities offered by the noun group. Are they sticking to simple, ‘safe’ noun groups or are
they perhaps using short, simple groups for a particular effect? Are they experimenting with
longer noun groups containing a variety of resources, such as building the description in an
information report? Are they able to comprehend more complex noun groups in their
reading? Are their reading materials providing them with good, challenging models of
complex noun groups? In which type of texts are you more likely to find lengthy noun
groups? Are they able to perceive a cluster of words as a noun group compared to a string
of single items?
A New Grammar Companion For Teachers Beverly Derewianka e:lit 2011
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Early Stage One Teaching and Learning Sequence
Adjectival Clause and Adjectival Phrase
The main grammar focus of the lessons was to encourage students to use adjectival phrases
and clauses to build noun groups. Although the NSW English K-6 Syllabus does not
specifically require students to do this during Early Stage One, the students proved very
capable of using these grammatical structures after extensive modelling. Adjectival clauses
and adjectival phrases help build up the noun group and are important components of
descriptive language which is used in most text types – description, recount, narrative,
information report etc.
The big black cow with a long tail, which eats grass, lives on the farm.
with a long tail – adjectival phrase
which eats grass – adjectival clause
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Linking Talking and Listening to Writing
The teaching of adjectival phrases and clauses was embedded within a curriculum topic to
promote an authentic purpose for using this grammatical structure either orally or in writing.
Initially, students negotiated the field of the topic with the teacher. In particular, relevant
vocabulary was introduced. In these lessons this included descriptive adjectives of size,
texture as well as animal body parts. For instance, students placed animals on a size cline and
discussed the positioning of various sizes on the cline. We also created a colour chart
together and labelled the colours and a texture chart with various materials and labelled the
textures. I then displayed these charts in class to support students’ talking and writing.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
After building vocabulary, I introduced talking and listening activities of enquiry, elimination
and description and modelled, elicited and used the target language. Many opportunities
were provided for students to undertake activities in order to practise the target language.
As the students were in Early Stage One, they did not have to develop the metalanguage
using the terms, ‘adjectival clause’ and ‘adjectival phrase’. However, they were explicitly
taught the function of the adjectival phrase and clause as ways of adding information to the
noun. For example, the questions, What does it look like? What does it do? Where does it live?
were used as prompts to develop the use of the adjectival clause. I played a game called
‘Descriptions’ in which I modelled to students the use of adjectival phrases and clauses while
describing an animal I had chosen from the animal pictures labelled and displayed in the
classroom. The students knew there was a toy version of the animal in the box and that they
had to guess which animal I was describing by listening to my description. Once some
students were familiar with the activity and the language pattern I asked students to give the
descriptions, choosing animals and descriptive words from the charts we had jointly
constructed and which I had displayed in the classroom. The pattern of language I used was:
In my box is something which...
I then described the animal’s appearance, what it did, what it ate and where it lived. When
students were describing, I used prompts to help them.
For Instance: A cow
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Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
These three grammatical patterns were slowly introduced in the daily timetabled talking and
listening sessions. Every day I used questions and prompts to elicit the target grammatical
structures orally by asking questions like: What does it look like? What does it do? What
does it eat? Where does it live? The grammatical structures were introduced one at a time
until students were comfortable with using them through daily repetition.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Enquiry and Elimination
In this strategy, instead of giving descriptions, students are supported to ask questions to
help in deciding which animal is being described. Rather than putting pictures of the animal
in the Descriptions box, students chose an animal from pictures displayed in the classroom
and used the same target language as used in the Description game to describe the animal.
However the focus is now on developing appropriate questions, again using the structures
taught in describing the animal. For example, using an adjectival phrase (What does it look
like?) Is it an animal with black spots? Or adjectival clause (What does it do?) Is it an animal
that gives milk? Again, these were daily activities during timetabled talking and listening.
Students were also given the opportunity to practise target language in small groups using
information gap activities during guided reading sessions.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Class Deconstruction of Information Report on Cows
The teacher constructs a sample text, for instance, ‘Cows’ using the target language being
taught. During modelled reading, questions are asked like Who would write this text? Who
would read it? (audience) Why would you read this text? What information is in this text?
Where would you find this text? Teacher and students identify and highlight words that tell
the reader what the cow looks like using adjectives and adjectival phrases and words that tell
the reader what the cow does using adjectival clauses.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
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Cows
Cows are big animals that live on farms.
Cows have a head with two eyes.
They have bodies with black, brown and white hair.
Cows have long tails that move from side to side.
They have four legs with grey hooves.
Cows have teeth that chew grass.
They have udders that squirt out milk.
Cows have huge mouths that they can say ‘Moo’ with.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Joint Construction
Students were involved in the writing of a description using adjectival phrases and clauses
during an interactive writing session. I provided the structure for students to write a single
sentence of factual description.
Structure: A (Which animal?) is a (What size? What colour?) animal with (What does it look
like?) that (What does it do?)
Students provided the adjectives, adjectival clauses and phrases to jointly construct a factual
description of the animal or plant. Students experimented with inserting different phrases
and clauses. They were engaged in creating various noun groups that changed the meaning
of the sentence.
For example:
A cow is a huge brown animal, with a long tail.
Or a cow is al ittle spotty animal that says moo!
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Independent Writing
After much modelled talking and listening, reading of and joint construction of building
noun groups through adjectival phrases and clauses, students wrote a description
individually. Vocabulary was available to them on the colour chart, size cline, and from the
labelled animals around the room.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
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Conclusion:
As can be seen from their writing samples, students learning English as an
AdditionalLanguage are able to construct complex sentences with extended noun groups
containing adjectival phrases and clauses. This was made possible by scaffolding students
through modelling and through providing opportunities for guided practice of the targeted
grammatical features in challenging talking and listening tasks. If students are able to orally
articulate, read, deconstruct and jointly construct sophisticated grammatical features they
will be able to confidently use them in their writing. As educators it is vital that we have a
sound knowledge of English grammar as this knowledge can help us to design wellsequenced literacy lessons which provide many opportunities to talk, listen and practise
sophisticated grammatical structures that will help our students read and write more
effectively.
Conversations About Text: Teaching Grammar Using Literary Texts Joanne Rossbridge and Kathy Rushton e:lit 2010
Further Information: Nouns and Pronouns
Nouns, noun groups and pronouns
Nouns
Nouns are words that name people, places, things and ideas.
Different types of nouns include:
• Common nouns that name classes of people, places and things and begin with a lower case letter,
e.g. film, bush, computer, biography, mother, adjective.
• Proper nouns that name particular people, places and things and begin with a capital letter, e.g.
Sam, Sydney Harbour, Commonwealth Government.
• Abstract nouns name ideas or concepts (things that cannot be seen and touched), e.g. freedom,
democracy, happiness, tragedy, peace, joy, hypothesis.
• Collective nouns name groups of things, e.g. group, class, flock, bunch, herd. Students may have
difficulty with subject–verb agreement when using collective nouns. The meaning (whether the group
is being considered as a whole or as individuals) dictates correct usage.
• Mass or uncountable nouns name things that cannot be counted, e.g. news, information, rain,
traffic, jewellery. To count mass nouns, other nouns (quantifiers) are needed. For example: ten items of
news, two pages of information, a shower of rain, a piece of jewellery.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Noun groups
A noun group is a group of words that function in a sentence as a noun does. Writers can enhance
the descriptive detail in their writing by adding qualifying words or phrases before the noun
(premodification) or after the noun (postmodification).
Premodification of noun groups usually consists of an article (the, a/an) plus one or more adjectives
and sometimes adverbs modifying the adjectives. Adjectives are words that describe or add extra
information to nouns. In the following example, two noun groups with premodified nouns are
indicated.
Locals watched the steeply curving waves smash the small wooden boat.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
When more than one adjective is used before a noun, the conventional order moves from the general
to the specific. For example:
Tall grey-green wattle trees not grey-green wattle tall trees
Postmodification of noun groups usually consists of adjectival phrases and adjectival (relative) clauses.
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Often such clauses and phrases used in this way are described as embedded. For example:
The shop with its store of chocolate was very popular.
This noun group has an embedded adjectival phrase.
The shop, which was located in the centre of town, was very popular.
This noun group has an embedded adjectival clause.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that stands in place of a noun, noun group or name. Pronouns generally need to
have clear and consistent reference, referring to something that has been identified or named
elsewhere in the text. Pronouns generally reference back to words earlier in the text, however
sometimes a pronoun can be used and referenced to a word forward in the text.
Correct: The train was late so Ming was relieved when it finally arrived. [refers backwards]
Correct: Although it was late, the train finally arrived. [refers forward]
Incorrect: It was late so Ming was relieved when it finally arrived. [What was late?]
Pronouns help to give a text cohesion and prevent it from becoming repetitious. Pronouns are only
effective if they are not ambiguous (that is, there is a clear line of reference) and if they are not used
repetitively.
Some writers are inconsistent in their use of pronouns, especially when referring to animals.
For example:
Brutus was a very clever dog. When his owner was sick, it rang the ambulance.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
Different types of pronouns include:
• Personal: I, we, you, she, he, it, they, me, us, her, him, them
• Possessive: mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs
• Reflexive: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, themselves
• Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
• Indefinite: each, any, some, all
• Relative: who, whom, whose, which, that
• Interrogative: who, which, what, whose, whom.
Aspects of Grammar: A handbook For Writing Assessment© 2006 New South Wales Department of Education and Training
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