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Induction and Inductance
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
First Experiment. Figure shows a conducting loop
connected to a sensitive ammeter. Because there is no
battery or other source of emf included, there is no current
in the circuit. However, if we move a bar magnet toward
the loop, a current suddenly appears in the circuit. The
current disappears when the magnet stops moving. If we
then move the magnet away, a current again suddenly
appears, but now in the opposite direction. If we
experimented for a while, we would discover the following:
1. A current appears only if there is relative motion between the loop and the
magnet (one must move relative to the other); the current disappears when
the relative motion between them ceases.
2. Faster motion of the magnet produces a greater current.
3. If moving the magnet’s north pole toward the loop causes, say, clockwise
current, then moving the north pole away causes counterclockwise current.
Moving the south pole toward or away from the loop also causes currents,
but in the reversed directions from the north pole effects.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
Second Experiment. For this experiment we use the
apparatus shown in the figure, with the two conducting
loops close to each other but not touching. If we close
switch S to turn on a current in the right-hand loop, the
meter suddenly and briefly registers a current—an
induced current—in the left-hand loop. If the switch
remains closed, no further current is observed. If we
then open the switch, another sudden and brief
induced current appears in the left-hand loop, but in
the opposite direction.
We get an induced current (from an induced emf) only when the current in the
right-hand loop is changing (either turning on or turning off) and not when it is
constant (even if it is large). The induced emf and induced current in these
experiments are apparently caused when something changes — but what is
that “something”? Faraday knew.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
Faraday realized that an emf E and a current can be
induced in a loop, as in our two experiments, by
changing the amount of magnetic field passing through
the loop. He further realized that the “amount of
magnetic field” can be visualized in terms of the
magnetic field lines passing through the loop.
The magnetic flux ΦB through an area A in a magnetic field B is defined as
 B   B d A  BA cos 
where the integral is taken over the area. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the
weber, where 1 Wb = 1 T  m2.
If B is perpendicular to the area and uniform over it, the flux is
 B  BA
[if B  A; B uniform]
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s Law. With the notion of magnetic flux, we can state Faraday’s law
in a more quantitative and useful way:
 
dB
dt
  N
dB
dt
the induced emf tends to oppose the flux change
and the minus sign indicates this opposition. This
minus sign is referred to as Lenz’s Law.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Magnetic Flux
In order to change the magnetic flux through the loop, what would you
have to do?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
drop the magnet
move the magnet upward
move the magnet sideways
only (1) and (2)
all of the above
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Magnetic Flux
In order to change the magnetic flux through the loop, what would you
have to do?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
drop the magnet
move the magnet upward
move the magnet sideways
only (1) and (2)
all of the above
Moving the magnet in any direction would
change the magnetic field through the loop
and thus the magnetic flux.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Magnetic Flux
In order to change the magnetic flux through the loop, what would you
have to do?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
tilt the loop
change the loop area
use thicker wires
only (1) and (2)
all of the above
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Magnetic Flux
In order to change the magnetic flux through the loop, what would you
have to do?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
tilt the loop
change the loop area
use thicker wires
only (1) and (2)
all of the above
Since  = B A cos , changing the area
or tilting the loop (which varies the
projected area) would change the
magnetic flux through the loop.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Induced Voltage
Wire 1 (length L) forms a one-turn loop, and a bar magnet is dropped
through. Wire 2 (length 2L) forms a two-turn loop, and the same
magnet is dropped through. Compare the magnitude of the induced
voltages in these two cases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
V1
V1
V1
V1
>
<
=
=
V2
V2
V2  0
V2 = 0
S
S
N
N
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Induced Voltage
Wire 1 (length L) forms a one-turn loop, and a bar magnet is dropped
through. Wire 2 (length 2L) forms a two-turn loop, and the same
magnet is dropped through. Compare the magnitude of the induced
voltages in these two cases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
V1
V1
V1
V1
>
<
=
=
V2
V2
V2  0
V2 = 0
Faraday’s Law:    N
S
S
N
N
 B
t
depends on N (number of loops) so the induced emf is twice as
large in the wire with 2 loops.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Induced Current
Wire 1 (length L) forms a one-turn loop, and a bar magnet is dropped
through. Wire 2 (length 2L) forms a two-turn loop, and the same
magnet is dropped through. Compare the magnitude of the induced
currents in these two cases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
I1
I1
I1
I1
>
<
=
=
I2
I2
I2  0
I2 = 0
S
S
N
N
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Induced Current
Wire 1 (length L) forms a one-turn loop, and a bar magnet is dropped
through. Wire 2 (length 2L) forms a two-turn loop, and the same
magnet is dropped through. Compare the magnitude of the induced
currents in these two cases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
I1
I1
I1
I1
>
<
=
=
I2
I2
I2  0
I2 = 0
S
S
N
N
 B
Faraday’s law:    N
t
says that the induced emf is twice as large in the wire with 2
loops. The current is given by Ohm’s law: I = V/R. Since Wire 2 is
twice as long as Wire 1, it has twice the resistance, so the current
in both wires is the same.
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Sample 30.01
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Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law
An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to this
induced current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the
current. The induced emf has the same direction as the induced current.
Lenz’s law at work. As the magnet is
moved toward the loop, a current is
induced in the loop. The current
produces its own magnetic field, with
magnetic dipole moment μ oriented
so as to oppose the motion of the
magnet. Thus, the induced current
must be counterclockwise as shown.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
The direction of the current i induced in a loop is such that the current’s magnetic field Bind opposes the
change in the magnetic field B inducing i. The field Bind is always directed opposite an increasing field
B (a, c) and in the same direction as a decreasing field B (b, d ). The curled – straight right-hand rule
gives the direction of the induced current based on the direction
of the
induced
Copyright
© by Holt,
Rinehart andfield.
Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Electromagnetic Induction (2)
If a North pole moves toward the loop in the plane of the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Electromagnetic Induction (2)
If a North pole moves toward the loop in the plane of the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
Since the magnet is moving parallel to the loop, there is no
magnetic flux through the loop. Thus the induced current is zero.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Shrinking Wire Loop
If a coil is shrinking in a magnetic field pointing into the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Shrinking Wire Loop
If a coil is shrinking in a magnetic field pointing into the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
The magnetic flux through the loop is decreasing, so the induced
B field must try to reinforce it and therefore points in the same
direction—into the page. According to the right-hand rule, an
induced clockwise current will generate a magnetic field into the
page.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Electromagnetic Induction
If a North pole moves toward the loop from above the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Electromagnetic Induction
If a North pole moves toward the loop from above the page, in what
direction is the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
The magnetic field of the moving bar magnet is pointing into the
page and getting larger as the magnet moves closer to the loop.
Thus the induced magnetic field has to point out of the page. A
counterclockwise induced current will give just such an induced
magnetic field.
Follow-up: What happens if the magnet is stationary but the loop moves?
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop
A wire loop is being pulled through a uniform magnetic field. What is
the direction of the induced current?
x x x x x x x x x x x x
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop
A wire loop is being pulled through a uniform magnetic field. What is
the direction of the induced current?
x x x x x x x x x x x x
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
Since the magnetic field is uniform,x x x x x x x x x x x x
the magnetic flux through the loop
is not changing. Thus NO current
is induced.
Follow-up: What happens if the loop moves out of the page?
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop (2)
A wire loop is being pulled through a uniform magnetic field that
suddenly ends. What is the direction of the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop (2)
A wire loop is being pulled through a uniform magnetic field that
suddenly ends. What is the direction of the induced current?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
The B field into the page is disappearing in the loop, so it must be
compensated by an induced flux also into the page. This can be
accomplished by an induced current in the clockwise direction in
the wire loop.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop (3)
What is the direction of the induced current if the B field suddenly
increases while the loop is in the region?
x x x x x x x x x x x x
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Moving Wire Loop (3)
What is the direction of the induced current if the B field suddenly
increases while the loop is in the region?
x x x x x x x x x x x x
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
x x x x x x x x x x x x
The increasing B field into the page must be countered by an
induced flux out of the page. This can be accomplished by
induced current in the counterclockwiseCopyright
direction
in the wire loop.
© by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Loop and Wire
A wire loop is being pulled away from a current-carrying wire. What is
the direction of the induced current in the loop?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
I
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Concept Check – Loop and Wire
A wire loop is being pulled away from a current-carrying wire. What is
the direction of the induced current in the loop?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
I
The magnetic flux is into the page on the right side of the wire and
decreasing due to the fact that the loop is being pulled away. By
Lenz’s Law, the induced B field will oppose this decrease. Thus,
the new B field points into the page, which requires an induced
clockwise current to produce such a B field.
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Concept Check – Loop and Wire (2)
What is the induced current if the wire loop moves in the direction of the
arrow ?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
I
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Concept Check – Loop and Wire (2)
What is the induced current if the wire loop moves in the direction of the
arrow ?
1. clockwise
2. counterclockwise
3. no induced current
I
The magnetic flux through the loop is not changing as it moves
parallel to the wire. Therefore, there is no induced current.
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Sample 30.02
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Sample 30.03
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Induction and Energy Transfer
By Lenz’s law, whether you move the magnet toward or away from the
loop, a magnetic force resists the motion, requiring your applied force
to do work. At the same time, thermal energy is produced in the
material. The energy you transfer to the closed loop & magnet system
ends up as thermal energy. The faster you move the magnet, the
greater rate at which you do work (power).
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induction and Energy Transfer
In this figure, a rectangular loop of wire of width L has one end in a uniform
external magnetic field that is directed perpendicularly into the plane of the loop.
This field may be produced, for example, by a large electromagnet. The dashed
lines in the figure show the assumed limits of the magnetic field; the fringing of the
field at its edges is neglected. You are to pull this loop to the right at a constant
velocity v.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induction and Energy Transfer
Flux change: Therefore, in the figure a magnetic field and a conducting loop
are in relative motion at speed v and the flux of the field through the loop is
changing with time (here the flux is changing as the area of the loop still in the
magnetic field is changing).
Rate of Work: To pull the loop at a constant velocity v, you must apply a
constant force F to the loop because a magnetic force of equal magnitude but
opposite direction acts on the loop to oppose you. The rate at which you do
work — that is, the power — is then
P  Fv
where F is the magnitude of the force you apply to the loop.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induction and Energy Transfer
Induced emf: To find the current, we first apply
Faraday’s law. When x is the length of the loop still in
the magnetic field, the area of the loop still in the field is
Lx. Then, the magnitude of the flux through the loop is
 B  BA  BLx
As x decreases, the flux decreases. Faraday’s law tells
us that with this flux i decrease, an emf is induced in
the loop. We can write the magnitude of this emf as
dB d
dx

 BLx  BL  BLv
dt
dt
dt
in which we have replaced dx/dt with v, the speed at which the
loop moves.
A circuit diagram for
the loop of above
figure while the
loop is moving.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induction and Energy Transfer
Induced Current: Figure (bottom) shows the loop as a
circuit: induced emf is represented on the left, and the
collective resistance R of the loop is represented on the
right. To find the magnitude of the induced current, we
can apply the equation
which gives
i
BLv
R
In the Fig. (top), the deflecting forces acting on the
three segments of the loop are marked F1, F2, and F3.
Note, however, that from the symmetry, forces F2 and
F3 are equal in magnitude and cancel. This leaves only
force F1, which is directed opposite your force F on the
loop and thus is the force opposing you.
A circuit diagram for
the loop of above
figure while the
loop is moving.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induction and Energy Transfer
So, F = -F1. the magnitude of F1 thus
F  F1  iLB sin 90  iLB (from F d  iL  B)
where the angle between B and the length vector L for
the left segment is 90°. This gives us
B 2 L2 v
F  iLB 
R
BLv
i
R
Because B, L, and R are constants, the speed v at which you
move the loop is constant if the magnitude F of the force you
apply to the loop is also constant.
Rate of Work: We find the rate at which you do work on the
loop as you pull it from the magnetic field:
B 2 L2 v 2
P  Fv 
R
NOTE: The work that you do in pulling the loop through the
magnetic field appears as thermal energy in the loop.
A circuit diagram for
the loop of above
figure while the
loop is moving.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induced Electric Field
(a) If the magnetic field increases at a steady rate, a constant induced current appears, as
shown, in the copper ring of radius r. (b) An induced electric field exists even when the ring
is removed; the electric field is shown at four points. (c) The complete picture of the induced
electric field, displayed as field lines. (d) Four similar closed paths that enclose identical areas.
Equal emfs are induced around paths 1 and 2, which lie entirely within the region of changing
magnetic field. A smaller emf is induced around path 3, which only partially lies in that region. No
net emf is induced around path 4, which lies entirely outside the magnetic field.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induced Electric Field
W   q0
W   F d s   q0 E  2 r 
 q0   q0 E  2 r 
  2 rE

 E ds
Therefore, an emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux even if the loop through which
the flux is changing is not a physical conductor but an imaginary line. The changing
magnetic field induces an electric field E at every point of such a loop.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Induced Electric Field
Using the induced electric field, we can
write Faraday’s law in its most general
form as
dB
 E d s   dt
Electric Potential: Induced electric fields are produced not by static charges but by
a changing magnetic flux. Therefore,
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Sample 30.04
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Inductors and Inductance
An inductor is a device that can be used to
produce a known magnetic field in a specified
region. If a current i is established through each of
the N windings of an inductor, a magnetic flux ΦB
links those windings. The inductance L of the
inductor is
L  B
LN
1
L
i
NB
L
i
The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H), where 1
henry = 1H = 1Tm2/A.
The windings of the inductor are said to be linked
by the shared flux and the product N is said to be
the magnetic flux linkage.
Inductance is therefore a measure of the flux
linkage produced by the inductor per unit of
current.
The crude inductors with which
Michael Faraday discovered the
law of induction. In those days
amenities such as insulated wire
were not commercially available.
It is said that Faraday insulated
his wires by wrapping them with
strips cut from one of his wife’s
petticoats.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Inductors and Inductance
Consider a long solenoid of cross-sectional area
A. The flux linkage of a length l near the middle
is
N  B   nl  BA 
From Ch. 29, the magnitude B is given by
B  0in
The inductance per unit length near the middle
of a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A and
n turns per unit length is
N  B  nl  BA   nl  0inA 
L


i
i
i
L
 0 n 2 A
l
The crude inductors with which
Michael Faraday discovered the
law of induction. In those days
amenities such as insulated wire
were not commercially available.
It is said that Faraday insulated
his wires by wrapping them with
strips cut from one of his wife’s
petticoats.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Self-Induction
If two coils — which we can now call inductors — are
near each other, a current i in one coil produces a
magnetic flux ΦB through the second coil. We have
seen that if we change this flux by changing the
current, an induced emf appears in the second coil
according to Faraday’s law. An induced emf appears
in the first coil as well. This process (see Figure) is
called self-induction, and the emf that appears is
called a self-induced emf. It obeys Faraday’s law of induction just as other induced
emfs do. For any inductor,
N  B  Li
Faraday’s law tells us that
d  NB 
dB
L  N

dt
dt
By combining these equations, we can write
d  Li 
di
L  
 L
dt
dt
Note: Thus, in any inductor (such
as a coil, a solenoid, or a toroid) a
self-induced emf appears
whenever the current changes
with time. The magnitude of the
current has NO influence on the
magnitude of the induced emf;
only the rate of change of the
current counts.
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Self-Induction
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RL Circuits
For an RC circuit:
𝑑𝑞
𝑞0 −𝑡
𝑖=
=−
𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐶
(discharging a capacitor)
In Module 27-4 we saw that if we suddenly introduce an emf into a single-loop circuit containing a resistor R and a
capacitor C, the charge on the capacitor does not build up immediately to its final equilibrium value but
approaches it in an exponential fashion:
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RL Circuits
An analagous slowing of the rise (or fall) or a current occurs if we introduce an
emf into (or remove it from) a single loop circuit containing a resistor and an
inductor. If a constant emf is introduced into a single-loop circuit containing a
resistance R and an inductance L, the current rises to an equilibrium value of /R
according to
i

1 e


R
t t L
Here tL, the inductive time constant, is given by
L
tL 
R
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RL Circuits
iR  L
di
  0
dt
  iR  L
i
i
di
dt

 Rt L

t t L
1 e

R

1 e


R
 rise of current 
tL 
L
R
The time constant 𝜏 is the time it takes the
current in the circuit to reach about 63% of its
𝜀
final equilibrium value 𝑅.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
RL Circuits
Plot (a) and (b) shows how the potential
differences VR (= iR) across the resistor and VL
(= L di/dt) across the inductor vary with time for
particular values of , L, and R.
When the source of constant emf is removed
and replaced by a conductor, the current
decays from a value i0 according to
i

R
The variation with time of (a) VR, the
potential difference across the resistor
in the circuit (top), and (b) VL, the
potential difference across the inductor
in that circuit.
t t L
t t L
e

i
e
  0
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Sample 30.05
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Sample 30.06
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Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Applying the loop rule to the LR circuit,
 L
di
 iR
dt
di 2
i  Li  i R
dt
dU B
di
 Li
dt
dt
An RL circuit.
dU B  Lidi

UB
0
i
dU B   Lidi
0
U B  Li
1
2
2
2
q
U E  12
C
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Sample 30.07
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Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
Consider a length l near the middle of a long solenoid of cross-sectional area A
carrying current i; the volume associated with this length is Al. The energy UB
stored by the length l of the solenoid must lie entirely within this volume because
the magnetic field outside such a solenoid is approximately zero. Moreover, the
stored energy must be uniformly distributed within the solenoid because the
magnetic field is (approximately) uniform everywhere inside. Thus, the energy
stored per unit volume of the field is
We have,
UB
uB 
Al
U B  12 Li 2
Li 2 L i 2 here L is the inductance of length l of the solenoid
uB 

2 Al l 2 A
2
i
Substituting for L/l we get u   n 2 A
 12 0i 2 n 2
B
0
2A
And we can write the energy density as
B2
uB 
2 0
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Summary
Magnetic Flux
• The magnetic flux through an area
A in a magnetic field B is defined as
Eq. 30-1
• If B: is perpendicular to the area
and uniform over it, Eq. 30-1
becomes
Eq. 30-2
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Lenz’s Law
• An induced current has a direction
such that the magnetic field due to
this induced current opposes the
change in the magnetic flux that
induces the current.
Emf and the Induced Magnetic
Field
• The induced emf is related to E by
Eq. 30-19
• The induced emf is,
Eq. 30-4
• If the loop is replaced by a closely
packed coil of N turns, the induced
emf is
• Faraday’s law in its most general
form,
Eq. 30-20
Eq. 30-5
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Summary
Inductor
• The inductance L of the inductor is
Series RL Circuit
• Rise of current,
Eq. 30-28
• The inductance per unit length near
the middle of a long solenoid of
cross-sectional area A and n turns
per unit length is
Eq. 30-31
Self-Induction
• This self-induced emf is,
Eq. 30-41
• Decay of current
Eq. 30-45
Magnetic Energy
• the inductor’s magnetic field stores
an energy given by
Eq. 30-49
Eq. 30-35
Mutual Induction
• The mutual induction is described by,
• The density of stored magnetic
energy,
Eq. 30-55
Eq. 30-64
Eq. 30-65
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Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields
Gauss’ law for magnetic fields is a formal way of
saying that magnetic monopoles do not exist. The
law asserts that the net magnetic flux ΦB through
any closed Gaussian surface is zero:
Contrast this with Gauss’ law for electric fields,
The field lines for the
magnetic field B of a
short bar magnet. The
red curves represent
cross sections of closed,
three-dimensional
Gaussian surfaces.
Gauss’ law for magnetic fields says that
there can be no net magnetic flux through
the surface because there can be no net
“magnetic charge” (individual magnetic
poles) enclosed by the surface.
If you break a
magnet, each
fragment becomes
a separate
magnet, with its
own north and
south poles.
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Induced Magnetic Fields
A changing electric flux induces a magnetic field B. Maxwell’s
Law,
Relates the magnetic field induced along a closed loop to the
changing electric flux ϕE through the loop.
Charging a Capacitor.
As an example of this sort of induction, we consider the
charging of a parallel-plate capacitor with circular
plates. The charge on our capacitor is being increased
at a steady rate by a constant current i in the
connecting wires. Then the electric field magnitude
between the plates must also be increasing at a steady
rate.
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Induced Magnetic Fields
A changing electric flux induces a magnetic field B. Maxwell’s
Law,
Relates the magnetic field induced along a closed loop to the
changing electric flux ϕE through the loop.
Charging a Capacitor (continued)
Figure (b) is a view of the right-hand plate of Fig. (a) from
between the plates. The electric field is directed into the
page. Let us consider a circular loop through point 1 in
Figs.(a) and (b), a loop that is concentric with the
capacitor plates and has a radius smaller than that of the
plates. Because the electric field through the loop is
changing, the electric flux through the loop must also be
changing. According to the above equation, this changing
electric flux induces a magnetic field around the loop.
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Induced Magnetic Fields
Ampere-Maxwell Law
Ampere’s law,
gives the magnetic field generated by a current ienc encircled
by a closed loop.
Thus, the two equations (the other being Maxwell’s Law)
that specify the magnetic field B produced by means other
than a magnetic material (that is, by a current and by a
changing electric field) give the field in exactly the same
form. We can combine the two equations into the single
equation:
When there is a current but no change in electric flux (such as with a wire carrying a
constant current), the first term on the right side of Eq. is zero, and so the Eq.
reduces to Ampere’s law. When there is a change in electric flux but no current
(such as inside or outside the gap of a charging capacitor), the second term on the
right side of Eq. is zero, and so Eq. reduces to Maxwell’s law of induction.
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Displacement Current
If you compare the two terms on the right side of Eq. (Ampere-Maxwell Law), you
will see that the product ε0(dϕE/dt) must have the dimension of a current. In fact,
that product has been treated as being a fictitious current called the displacement
current id:
Ampere-Maxwell law
Ampere-Maxwell Law then becomes,
where id,enc is the displacement current encircled by the integration loop.
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Displacement Current
Finding the Induced Magnetic Field:
In Chapter 29 we found the direction of the
magnetic field produced by a real current i
by using the right-hand rule. We can apply
the same rule to find the direction of an
induced magnetic field produced by a
fictitious displacement current id, as is
shown in the center of Fig. (c) for a
capacitor.
Then, as done previously, the magnitude of
the magnetic field at a point inside the
capacitor at radius r from the center is
the magnitude of the magnetic field at a
point outside the capacitor at radius r is
(a) Before and (d) after the plates are charged,
there is no magnetic field. (b) During the
charging, magnetic field is created by both the
real current and the (fictional) (c) displacement
current. (c) The same right-hand rule works for
both currents to give the direction of the
magnetic field.
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Displacement Current
The four fundamental equations of electromagnetism, called Maxwell’s
equations and are displayed in Table 32-1.
These four equations explain a diverse range of phenomena, from why a
compass needle points north to why a car starts when you turn the
ignition key. They are the basis for the functioning of such
electromagnetic devices as electric motors, television transmitters and
receivers, telephones, scanners, radar, and microwave ovens.
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