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Judaism – Significant Individual Maimonides (1136-1204) Maimonides - Famous physician, philosopher and Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon was a Jewish physician, rabbi and philosopher born in Cordoba, Spain in 1136. This famous individual is more commonly referred to as Maimonides which literally means son of Maimon in Greek. Others refer to this universally famed figure in Jewish history as RaMBaM, an acronym for Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon. Social and Cultural Background and Influences In order to fully appreciate the monumental impact which Maimonides had on Judaism one firstly needs to understand the social and cultural backdrop against which Maimonides' composed his great literary and medical texts. This context for his work will help provide an understanding of Maimonides, his writings and the impact his work had during his lifetime and beyond. Islamic world where Jews were considered as second class citizens It is not the intent of this text to paint a comprehensive picture of the early Medieval period. Rather it will focus on some of the more important historical events and socio-political influences which pertain more specifically to the life of Maimonides. In short, it should be noted that Maimonides lived in an Islamic world where Jews were regarded as second class citizens. However, Islam was not the only threat to Judaism during this time. The early Medieval period also marks a revival of classical learning, especially a revival of Greek philosophy. This age was characterised by the dominance of Islam in parts of Europe, the Middle East and the Near East. This powerful force that began in the Middle East in the 7th century had established an empire which extended from Northern Spain in the West to India in the East by the twelfth century. Through their conquests, Muslims had access to Greek science and philosophy as well as Persian history and literature. With this wealth of both classical and contemporary learning the Muslims, who were great admirers of education, helped to disseminate knowledge of many new discoveries to the areas where Islamic civilisations existed. This diffusion of Islamic learning and culture throughout the medieval world was further facilitated by the movement of European academics to Islamic countries to study Islamic mathematics, medicine and philosophy. The result of this cultural diffusion was the translation and preservation of the works of classical antiquity in Europe. Revival of classical philosophy posed as a threat to monotheism The translation of Greek philosophy to Arabic by Arab and Syrian scholars between the fifth and eleventh centuries, enabled the re- emergence of Greek philosophy in Europe in the 11 th and 12 th centuries CE. This revival of classical philosophy, especially the writings of Aristotle, challenged the authority and validity of many religious ideas In particular it posed a threat to the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. There were various philosophical challenges to Judaism but the major philosophical concerns centered on concepts such as the Nature of God, the existence of God, free will and the existence of evil. These perplexing issues posed a threat to monotheistic religions because for monotheistic religions their faith in God was not based so much on reason as on experience - the heart over the head, so to speak. Thus the core belief of monotheistic religions was the belief in one God, a God who had been revealed to human beings through the medium of other human being such as Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad . The revelation is also believed to come through other ways such as in creation, in deliverance from enemies etc. One Aristotelian idea which presented as a major problem for these religions was the theory that the prime mover, the first cause (God) was pure intellect. This view is linked to the principles of Plato's Theory of Forms and to subsequent philosophers who developed Plato's principles into what became known as Neoplatonism, a theory which was developed by a philosopher by Plotinus. The revival of classical philosophy was not the only threat which faced Judaism during this time. Another significant threat came from the fact that Jews lived in an Islamic world, where they were more or less seen as second class citizens. That is not to say however that the Muslims did not tolerate Judaism. In fact Muslims tolerated both Judaism and Christianity in the countries they conquered mainly because they, like Islam, were monotheistic religions and based their teachings on the sacred scriptures. Muslims allowed Jews the freedom to practice their religion within the Muslim empire but they had to pay special taxes and were considered lower than Muslims in the eyes of the law. Thus, the need to preserve and perpetuate the Jewish religion in an Islamic environment became a primary concern for Maimonides. Sephardi and Askenazi Jews Despite the dominance of Islam in early Medieval Europe, the Jewish culture flourished in Spain. In fact the period from 900-1200 CE is frequently referred to as "The Golden Age of Spanish Jewry". The Jews who lived in Spain were known as the Sephardi Jews, a word which is derived from the Hebrew word "Sepharad" which means " Spain". The other major community of Jews in Europe was known as the Ashkenazim, a word which is derived from the Hebrew word "Ashkenez" meaning "German". One of the critical differences between these two communities was their attitude towards education. For the Sephardim, education was based on a sound knowledge not only of the Torah but also of science and philosophy. It was in this community, with its spirit of inclusive education, that Maimonides grew up. It is to be expected therefore, that his writings would be greatly influenced by his knowledge of philosophical concepts. In contrast the Ashkenazim regarded education as being solely directed towards knowledge of the Torah and Talmud. Almohades This golden era of Spanish Jewry which was characterised by tolerance and progress came to an end with the emergence of a Muslim sect known as the Almohades. The Almohades were a very powerful and fanatical group of Muslims who, under their leader Aba al-Mu'min, invaded Spain in 1148. They claimed that they had discovered a teaching of Muhammad which stated that Muslims were only to tolerate Jews for five hundred years and if, at the end of that period of time, the Jewish Messiah still had not come, then Jews hadto renounce Judaism and become Muslims, or to be given the option of exile or death. These options - conversion, death or exile - also applied to Christians. The result of such persecutions was that thousands of Jews fled from Spain and Morocco. Biography Family background Moses Maimonides was a Sephardi Jew born in Cordoba, Spain in 1136, a few years before the emergence of the Almohades during the period known as "The Golden Age of Spanish Jewry". His family came from a long line of judges and his father also followed this profession. Maimonides' father was a deeply learned man whose education consisted of Torah study, mathematics and astronomy. His father also held a position of leadership in his community arising from his vast Torah knowledge and overall scholarship. Early education It is not surprising therefore, that Maimonides was given a thorough education by his father in Jewish religion (Torah and Talmud) as well as an education in the secular sciences and philosophy. These areas of study dominated his life and were the sources of some of his greatest works. The Exilic Years Maimon family flees Spain to escape persecution In 1148 the fanatical Almohades sect invaded Spain. Maimonides' family was given the option of exile, death or conversion. Maimonides and his family, along with thousands of Jews fled from Spain and Morocco. After some years of displacement, the Maimon family finally settled in Fotstad, near Cairo in Egypt. Maimon family settles in Egypt under a tolerant Fatimide rule In Egypt, the rule of the tolerant Fatimide caliphs allowed Jews to freely practice their religion. Shortly after the arrival of the Maimon family in Fotstad, Maimonides' father passed away. Maimonides' brother David became a dealer in precious stones in order to support the family and to allow Maimonides', his prodigious brother, to continue his studies. However, when David was lost at sea along with a great deal of the family fortune, Maimonides had to earn a living and it is thought that it was at this time that he started practicing medicine. Maimonides is appointed as physician at the court of the Sultan In 1183, he was appointed as a physician at the court of the Sultan. In his capacity as royal physician he was responsible for supervising the health of Grand Vizier Alfadhel, along with members of the royal family. His fame as royal physician was so great, that even Richard the Lionheart of England sought his medical services, by offering him the position of royal physician for the English court. During these final years Maimonides, in addition to his devotion to the practice of medicine, also continued to revise and add to his collection of great works, while acting as the Chief Rabbi of Egypt. The years of strenuous labor and weariness took its toll on Maimonides and in 1204 he passed away, and was mourned by Jews from all over the world. His body was laid to rest in the holy city of Tiberias. Works and Bibliography Major literary works Despite his amazing schedule and the demands on his time, Maimonides was a prolific writer of important works in the fields of Jewish law, medicine and philosophy. During his lifetime, Maimonides wrote prolifically but his three best known works are: 1. Commentary on the Mishnah (written in Arabic in his youth) 2. Mishneh Torah (a Code of Law written in Hebrew in middle age) 3. Guide for the Perplexed (written in Arabic in old age) Most of Maimonides' works were written in Arabic, the main exception being the Mishneh Torah which was written in Hebrew. In addition to his three best known works, Maimonides also composed various teshuvot (responsa), which is essentially a collection of correspondence between Maimonides' and various other Jewish authorities around that time. In addition to these texts, Maimonides also composed some medical texts, during his time as physician in the court of the Sultan. Maimonides the Talmudist Renowned Talmudist In his capacity as a renowned Talmudist, Maimonides made three major contributions to Jewish law: Commentary on the Mishnah, Sefer HaMitzvot and with his 'magnum opus', the Mishneh Torah. These works earned Maimonides' the reputation of being a highly learned Talmudist with an extremely thorough knowledge of Scripture, Talmud, Jewish law and traditions. Appointed as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community Maimonides' reputation for his scholarly wisdom meant that he was frequently called upon to resolve religious disputes and corresponded with other Jewish authorities in relation to the deconstruction of difficult halakhic passages. In 1178, when Maimonides was 42, he was appointed as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community. This was indeed a vote enormous of confidence from his Jewish peers since the office of Chief Rabbi was one of the highest offices in the Jewish world at that time. Commentary on the Mishnah Significance of the Commentary on the Mishnah In his "Commentary on the Mishnah" (Sefer HaMaor) Maimonides provides a comprehensive commentary oneach of the tractates of the Mishnah. He does this through providing a history of the Oral Torah and explaining thelink between learning the Torah and putting it into practice. The Commentary was written in Arabic, the vernacular language of the masses. Later, successive parts were rendered into Hebrew by various scholars. The Commentary focused directly on the halakhic decision In this commentary Maimonides focused directly on the final halakhic decision found within the rabbinic discourse. This is done clearly and concisely before offering a detailed commentary explaining the meaning of the text. This method allowed Maimonides to deal directly with the mishnaic text outside of the convoluted rabbinic discourse. Thirteen Principles of Faith Significance of the 13 Principles of Faith According to Maimonides these principles were the foundations on which Judaism was based. Today, these principles are accepted as the foundation of many credal statements. These principles also form the basis of the Shulchan Aruch the authoritative code of Rabbi Yosef Karo, formulated in the 16 th century and remaining as a text of great significance throughout the different strands of Judaism today. The 13 Principles of Faith are as follows: 1. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the Creator and Guide of all the created beings, and that He alone has made, does make, and will make all things. 2. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is One and Alone; that there is no oneness in any way like Him; and that He alone is our G-d - was, is and will be. 3. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is incorporeal; that He is free from all anthropomorphic properties; and that He has no likeness at all. 4. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the first and the last. 5. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, is the only one to whom it is proper to pray, and that it is inappropriate to pray to anyone else. 6. I believe with complete faith that all the words of the Prophets are true. 7. I believe with complete faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace unto him, was true; and that he was the father of the prophets, both of those who preceded and of those who followed him. 8. I believe with complete faith that the whole Torah which we now possess was given to Moses, our teacher, peace unto him. 9. I believe with complete faith that this Torah will not be changed, and that there will be no other Torah given by the Creator, blessed be His name. 10. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, knows all the deeds and thoughts of human beings, as it is said "It is He who fashions the hearts of them all, He who perceives all their actions". (Psalm 33:15) 11. I believe with complete faith that the Creator, blessed be His name, rewards those who observe His commandments, and punishes those who transgress His commandments. 12. I believe with complete faith in the coming of Mashiach (messiah), and although he may tarry, nevertheless, I wait every day for him to come. 13. I believe with complete faith that there will be resurrection of the dead at the time when it will be the will of the Creator, blessed be His name and exalted be His remembrance forever and ever. Codification of Jewish law Sefer HaMitzvot Positive and negative mitzvot The Sefer HaMitzvot (The Book of the Commandments) is essentially an introduction to his great work, the Mishneh Torah. The Sefer HaMitzvot seeks to list the 613 commandments (mitzvot) found in the Torah. Maimonides divides these 613 mitzvot into two categories: positive mitzvot and negative mitzvot. Positive mitzvot are commands to perform an act, for example to love one's neighbour. Negative mitzvot are commands to refrain from doing something, for example do not murder. Process of determining the 613 mitzvot There are 248 positive or affirmative precepts and 365 negative or prohibitory injunctions. But before Maimonides enumerates these 613 mitzvot, he gives an explanation of how he determined which commandments were the 613 commandments, remembering that a simple counting of Biblical mitzvot would yield a much greater number of commandments than 613. Maimonides sets out fourteen rules by which one comes to include and exclude particular commandments to form the 613 commandments. Mishneh Torah Mishneh Torah It is generally agreed that Maimonides' greatest contribution to Jewish life was this code of law, the Mishneh Torah. Maimonides' Mishneh Torah provided an exhaustive topical codification of the Talmud which facilitated much quicker and easier access to the Jewish precepts. This work comprised 14 books and was written in Hebrew in a style which was easy to read and understand. Significance of the Mishneh Torah It seems that Maimonides' intention in compiling the Mishneh Torah was to provide Jews with a comprehensible guide to Jewish Law without having to spend long hours studying the Talmud. By referring to the Torah and his code, Jews should be able to work out how to behave in any given situation. Prior to Maimonides there was no systematic presentation of the Jewish law (Torah and Talmud) thus a Talmudist would need to make an exhaustive study of the entire text in order to explain the Talmudic perspective on an issue. The Mishneh Torah was the result of ten years of meticulous study. Summary of the Contents of the Mishneh Torah General contents of the Mishneh Torah In terms of the specific contents of the Mishneh Torah, the first book, the Book of Knowledge (Sefer HaMada in Hebrew) contains laws concerning belief in God, idolatry, repentance and the study of Torah. The other thirteen books detail Jewish ritual and civil laws such as blessings, circumcision, holy days, relationships between males and females, dietary laws and ethics. Messiah The conclusion of the Mishneh Torah deals with Maimonides' interpretation of the notion of the Messiah. Unlike some views of Messiah as the one who would come and make Jews a dominant people over their enemies, Maimonides saw the coming of the Messiah as a time of peace and prosperity in which Jews would not have to worry about wars and oppression but would be free to study the Torah and become familiar with the wisdom of the Law so that they would be worthy of the life that was to come. Responsa Maimonides was a much respected Jewish authority Maimonides was a much respected authority on Jewish law and religion, even prior to his appointment as Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewry. As a result many Jewish leaders and authorities directed queries towards and called upon for his scholarly opinion on matters ranging from religious law to the general civil issues which affected Jews in that time. Teshuvot (responsa) He wrote various Teshuvot (Responsa) in answer to the numerous queries which were directed to him from Jews from all around the world. These Teshuvot deal with a broad spectrum of issues, ranging from religio-philosophical problems to matters dealing with Jewish law and to explanations of complex Torah passages. Maimonides the Philosopher Religious rationalist Following the completion of his momentous work, the Mishneh Torah, Maimonides set about to write his great philosophical tractate, the Guide for the Perplexed (Moreh Nevuchim). This text essentially deals with the key doctrines of Judaism from a philosophical standpoint. For example, it deals with issues such as the nature of God, what it means for God to be omnipotent, free will, what is evil and what goodness means, justice and divine revelation. Moreh Nevuchim Innovative nature of Maimonides' Moreh Nevuchim Among the Sephardim there had been some previous interest in the secular sciences, however, Maimonides brought this to a new level with his Guide for the Perplexed. Among the Ashkenazim there had not been any attempt to study anything beyond the Torah, thus for the Ashkenazim, Maimonides' approach was radically new. Significance of the Moreh Nevuchim Essentially, Maimonides was breaking down the tendency in the Jewish tradition to separate the sacred and the secular in a way which compartmentalised life by attending to the study of religious truths on the one hand and the living of life in a secular community on the other. In doing so, what Maimonides tried to resolve genuine philosophical concerns over some apparent contradictions in Jewish understanding. Ideas such as the spiritual nature of God and the anthropomorphic depictions of God in the Tenak were at the centre of these concerns. Effect of the Moreh Nevuchim Maimonides succeeded in providing a clear and sound philosophical explanation of these issues. In doing so he was also able to successfully defend Judaism against philosophical challenges that the beliefs of Judaism could not be rationally sustained. Contents of the Guide In the first part of the Guide, for example, Maimonides deals with the question of anthropomorphisms (describing God in human terms). He criticised Jews who accepted literally such Biblical expressions as "the finger of God". Although the Bible described God in human terms, they were not supposed to be taken literally. According to Maimonides, if taking the Bible literally contravened reason, then it should not be taken literally. Religious belief should be logical and open to intellectual debate. He also felt that one could acquire knowledge of God through the mind and that studying the Torah helped Jews to attain a greater knowledge of God in the philosophical sense. However, he also stated that there was a limit to the kind of knowledge of God that a human could attain. One could know what God was like through God's actions and knowing what God was like meant that one must then act as God did. For example, one could learn that God was compassionate and therefore Jews must be compassionate. They must "walk in God's ways". The Guide is also devoted to providing reasons for the commandments in the Torah which may be seen as unreasonable such as the dietary laws (kashrut). The Legacy of Maimonides It is difficult to overestimate the significance of Maimonides Maimonides died in Egypt in 1204 but his body was taken to Israel for burial. His grave at Tiberius remains a place of pilgrimage for Jews. The extent of the influence of Moses Maimonides on the Jewish tradition can be readily seen through the esteem in which his teaching is held in all strands of Judaism. In 1984 the Hasidic Rebbe Menachim M. Schneerson proposed a widespread study of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah in preparation for the 850 th anniversary of the birth of Maimonides. The Rebbe's call resulted in an overwhelming response of Jews from around the world and across the spectrum of the Jewish tradition. The biographers of Maimonides have acclaimed his significance through their coining of the saying "from Moshe to Moshe there arose none like Moshe", thus giving voice to their belief that Maimonides stands virtually without peer in the Jewish world in terms of his impact, his significance and his recognition among Jews. Maimonides' major contributions The momentous contribution of Moses Maimonides to Judaism can be briefly summed up thus: 1. Maimonides sought to consolidate Jewish communities in the face of the dual threats of persecution from Muslim communities and challenges of classical philosophy by advising Jewish communities on significant areas of controversy and with his literary works. 2. Maimonides wrote the Commentary on the Mishnah and the Mishneh Torah to facilitate the study of the Torah and Talmud among Jewish communities thus strengthening these communities. 3. Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed addressed the relationship between religion and philosophy to demonstrate that Jewish beliefs had a sound basis in rational thought. 4. Maimonides developed the 13 Principles of the Jewish Faith which would become the basis for many Jewish credal statements. Surely therefore, it must be acknowledged that Maimonides' influence is virtually unparalleled in post biblical times. His influence embraces the great disciplines of religion, science and philosophy as well as providing Judaism with some its mostly highly regarded reference texts. Not all have embraced Maimonides' ideas however. Indeed he faced opposition from some of his contemporaries and continues to evoke criticism today. Yet despite these limitations, the extent of his impact is clearly remarkable as is summed up in the saying "from Moshe to Moshe there arose none like Moshe". Influence of Maimonides on Judaism Three major works Maimonides' three major literary works, the Mishneh Torah, the Commentary on the Mishnah, which includes the 13 Principles of Faith, and the Guide for the Perplexed along with his leadership of the Jewish community has had a significant impact during his day and beyond. During his time, Maimonides was able to consolidate Jewish communities in the face of the dual threats of persecution from Muslim dominance and challenges of classical philosophy. Maimonides is also influential today as his writings have subsequently become the foundation for much Jewish teaching. The extent of the effect of his contributions is evident in that he is held in high acclaim by all strands of Judaism. Almohades Moses Maimonides was born in Cordoba in Spain 1135. At his time, Spain was dominated by Islamic culture and religion and Jews were considered to be second class citizens. The Jewish people began to be persecuted in Spain in 1148, when Spain was invaded by the fanatical Almohades. The Maimon family eventually settled in Egypt after fleeing Islamic persecution. Sephardim As a Sephardi Jew, Maimonides was educated in both the secular sciences and in Jewish studies, that is, the Torah and the Talmud. This prolific writer was appointed as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewish community which was one of the highest offices in the Jewish world in those days. The work of Maimonides in consolidating and strengthening Judaism against Islamic dominance, as well the revival of classical philosophy needs to be seen in this context. Codified Talmud The nature of Maimonides' influence can be seen in three important areas. The first are is his codification of the Talmud, the Mishneh Torah. The aim of Maimonides' major work was to provide a topical codification of the Talmud so as to facilitate a much easier access to Jewish precepts. Prior to this work, in order for a Jew to find out what they should do in any given circumstance, they would have to undertake a laborious study of the entire text. This is significant because Judaism is essentially a practical religion, concerned with the day to day practice of halakhic laws. Essentially, therefore, the Mishneh Torah is significant because it can be regarded as the first comprehensive, exhaustive, topical codification of the Talmud. The very fact that it was written in Hebrew, rather then Arabic, which was the language Maimonides used for most of his works, gives is an indication of Maimonides' intentions for this work. That is, this great reference work was to be used not only by Arabic speaking Jews of his era but by Jews in all times. The importance of the Mishneh Torah as a reference guide is evident in the fact that it was met with almost universal acclaim across the different strands of Judaism. Commentary on the Mishnah The second realm of significant influence for Maimonides came through his Commentary on the Mishnah which provided a comprehensive commentary on each of the tractates of the Mishnah. Ultimately, Maimonides intended this work to make Judaism more relevant to the average Jew living in an Islamic society. In the Commentary on the Mishnah Maimonides provides a link between learning the Torah and putting it in practice by providing comprehensive commentary on each of the tractates of the Mishnah. He wrote in a simple style and explained each mitzvot outside the context of the Rabbinic discussion and went straight to the halakhic decision. This contribution is significant because it cuts across the convoluted rabbinic discourse in presenting the final halakhic decision. 13 Principles of Faith The third significant effect Maimonides had on Judaism was to formulate the 13 Principles of Faith as contained in the Commentary on the Mishnah. This now forms the basis for credal statements made by Jews today. They highlight the main features of the Jewish faith, and thus assist in consolidating Judaism by clarifying its core beliefs. Moreh Nevuchim The fourth significant influence for Maimonides is his integration of religion, science and philosophy primarily through his Guide for the Perplexed. This text sought to rationalise Judaism in relation to classical philosophy and show that Judaism had a basis in rational thought. Here he tried to resolve some apparent contradictions in the Jewish religion, which perplexed the Jewish community and particularly those schooled in Aristotelian thought. In doing so, this work is helped to preserve faith in Judaism by people who were genuinely perplexed by the apparent contradictions in Jewish thought. Even more significant is the fact that Maimonides helped to assure the Jews who were less educated that their religion was one with a sound basis, so that they would not turn away from Judaism. The Guide for the Perplexed is mainly concerned with the anthropomorphic depictions of God, despite the belief about God's incorporeality. He concluded that since this practice of referring to the hand of God etc cannot be rationally sustained, one should not therefore refer to God that way. Essentially, Maimonides can be described as a religious rationalist who sought to rationalise religion in order to save religion from being made irrelevant by rationalist philosophy. Opposition to Moreh Nevuchim This work was not however without its opponents. For example, the fact that the integration of philosophy of religion had never fully been embraced before meant that many regarded it as a contravention of the practiced wisdom of the sages. But despite opposition to his work, the extent of his influence in philosophy remains as a profound one. The significance of his work is upheld by people from many different strands of Judaism. But the different strands of Judaism place a slightly different emphasis on which parts of Maimonides' work they value the most. Zionists hold a high regard for Maimonides because Maimonides declared that it is a mitzvah to take possession of Israel and live in it. Orthodox Jews place a lot of emphasis on studying the works of Maimonides in religious institutions because it is a guide to understanding what is required of Jews on a day to day basis. Liberal and Reform Jews on the other hand dispute some of his Talmudic commentary including a number of the 13 principles of faith. Nevertheless, Liberal and Reform Jews do hold his philosophical works in high regard. Torah and Talmud It can be seen that Maimonides had a very significant effect on Judaism as he consolidated it in the face of the threat of Islamic dominance and the revival of classical philosophy. He did this by making the Torah and Talmud more understandable and accessible to the everyday Jew through his works the Mishneh Torah and the Commentary on the Mishnah. He also made Judaism relevant in the face of threats from classical philosophy through the Guide for the Perplexed where he showed that Judaism was grounded in rationalism. The enormous impact which Maimonides had on Judaism is reflected in the saying "from Moshe to Moshe there arose none like Moshe". Glossary Almohades Fanatical Muslim sect which conquered Northern Africa as far as Egypt and Spain during the twelfth century Ani Maamin A rendition based on Maimonides’ 13 principles of faith, which forms part of prayer for Orthodox Jews. Ashkenazim Jews settled around European countries such as Germany, Poland, Russia and Eastern Europe, and historically speak Yiddish. Commentary on A book written by Maimonides which provides a comprehensive commentary the Mishnah on each of the tractates of the Mishnah. Halakhah The Hebrew term for “walking’” refers to the collective body of Jewish rabbinic law, custom and tradition. The halakhah is the legal component of the Talmud, which is comprised of the rules and laws for living. Hasidism A movement within Ultra-Orthodox Judaism which developed in Eastern Europe during the eighteenth century. Its principal teaching stresses the notions of joy, love, awe of God and devotion to God. Kaballah A body of Jewish mystic teachings, based on an esoteric knowledge of God. Kashrut Jewish dietary laws. Guide for the Perplexed One of Maimonides’ major philosophical works where he examines the Jewish religion from a philosophical standpoint. Messiah A term that means the “anointed one” is typically used to refer to the anticipated saviour and liberator of the Jewish people. Mishnah The first and more important recording of the Oral Torah which was finalised in written form around 200 CE. The Mishnah contained expositions and interpretations of legal sections of the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Mishneh Torah Code of Jewish law by Moses Maimonides that is commonly regarded as his most important work. Negative mitzvot Commands to refrain from doing something. Neoplatonism A school of philosophical thought developed by Plotinus in the third century CE. It is based on the teachings of Plato, mysticism and Judaeo-Christian concepts. It teaches of the existence of a transcendent One, from which all aspects of creation emanate from. Oral Torah The interpretation and application of the Torah to changing circumstances over successive generations passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. This ensured that the principles of the Torah could be applied to each new generation. When the Oral Torah came to be written down, it formed the Talmud. Positive mitzvot Commandments requiring the performance of a positive, affirmative act. Prime Mover In Aristotelian philosophy, the prime mover refers to a being that is self moved, and consequently is the source of and cause of all motion. Shulchan Aruch A code of law developed by Rabbi Yosef Karo in the 16 th century, that is often considered as the authoritative code of Jewish law. Sephardim Refers to a descendant of, or the group of Jews that lived in Medieval Spain and Portugal. The Sephardim Jew are often contrasted with the Ashkenazi Jews of central and northern Europe. Talmud The word “Talmud” is an Aramaic term which means learning. The Talmud is an enormous volume of important literature for Jewish life. It contains compilations of the law with detailed elucidations from the wisdom of the Rabbis. It also contains history, stories and theological reflection. Torah The Hebrew word meaning ‘law’ or ‘teaching’ refers to the first and most significant section of the Hebrew Bible. The Torah contains 5 books which are variously known as the books of the law, the books of Moses and the Pentateuch. It is also custom at times to use the term ‘Torah’ to refer generally to the whole Hebrew bible. Yigdal A poetic rendition based on Maimonides’ 13 principles of faith, which forms part of prayer for Orthodox Jews. Zionism Political movement and philosophy which is aimed at achieving the establishment of a Jewish home state in Israel. The land of Israel is important because the Jewish kingdom and nation grew out of the land of Israel, originally known as Canaan. Summary Points Students learn about: The contribution to Judaism of ONE significant person OR school of thought: Moses Maimonides The effect of that person OR school of thought on Judaism Students learn to: Explain the contribution of ONE significant person OR school of thought to the development and expression of Judaism: Moses Maimonides Social and Cultural Background and Influences Islamic world - Judaism under threat. Jews regarded as second class citizens. Sephardi Jew - educated in science and philosophy as well as Torah. Time of rediscovery of classical learning - Greek philosophy - Plato and Aristotle. Strongly religious age. Message/Teaching Commentary on the Mishnah - explained the meaning of each Mishnah in a simple, systematic and ordered way. The Commentary on the Mishnah explained the link between learning Torah and putting it into practice. Within this Commentary Maimonides formulated the thirteen principles of faith which is recognised as a creed for Judaism. Commentary on the Mishnah was written in Arabic - easily accessible to Jews living in Muslim areas. Mishneh Torah - code of Jewish law - fourteen books written in Hebrew - in a style easily read and understood. The Mishneh Torah, is a comprehensive guide to Jewish law without the need for study of Talmud. Does not include debate, discussion, minority opinion etc as found in Talmud. Many Jews felt it would lead to people no longer studying Talmud. Mishneh Torah contained - Book of Knowledge - concerning belief in God, idolatry, repentance and the study of Torah. Other 13 books detail Jewish ritual and civil laws e.g. blessings, circumcision, holy days, relationships, dietary laws and ethics. Conclusion of Mishneh Torah deals with interpretation of the notion of messiah (Mashiah). Maimonides saw coming of messiah as a time of peace and prosperity free from wars and oppression - free to study Torah in preparation for the life to come. Guide of the Perplexed (Moreh Nevuchim) - philosophical work attempting to reconcile the Jewish concept of God with the Aristotelian view of God. Deals with anthropomorphisms - Maimonides concluded that God should not be taken literally as described eg. Hand of god. Maimonides argued in the Guide for the Perplexed that if taking the bible literally contravened reason then it should not be taken literally. In the Guide for the Perplexed Maimonides puts forward the position that religious belief should be logical and open to intellectual debate. In the Guide for the Perplexed Maimonides concludes that it is possible to acquire knowledge of God through the mind. Studying Torah helped to attain a greater knowledge of God in the philosophical sense. However, there is also a limit to knowledge of God that a person could attain. Third part of Guide of the Perplexed deals with providing reasons for the mitzvot which may be seen as unreasonable. Guide - extremely difficult work - written in Arabic - intended for students of Aristotelian philosophy who were confused by apparent contradictions between philosophy and the Jewish religion. Chronology 1138 - Maimonides is born in Cordoba, Spain. 1148 - Almohades invade Spain, and the Maimon family chose to leave Spain as a consequence of the capture of Cordoba. They embark on an eleven year sojourn through Southern Spain and Northern Africa. 1158 - Maimonides begins to write the Commentary on the Mishnah. 1166 - Maimon family settles in Alexandria, Egypt. 1166 - Maimonides' father passes away. 1165 - Maimonides finishes the Commentary on the Mishnah. 1167 - Maimonides begins to write the Sefer HaMitzvot and Mishneh Torah. 1171 - Maimonides' brother David drowns in a shipwreck. 1171 - Maimonides decides to settle in Fostad, Egypt. 1177 - Maimonides is appointed as the Chief Rabbi of the Egyptian Jewry. 1177 - Maimonides finishes his 'magnum opus', the Mishneh Torah. 1186 - Maimonides finishes writing the Guide for the Perplexed. 1204 - Maimonides passes away. His final resting place was the holy place of Tiberias. Students learn about: The contribution to Judaism of ONE significant person OR school of thought: Moses Maimonides The effect of that person OR school of thought on Judaism Students learn to: Analyse the impact of this person OR school of thought on Judaism Influence/Significance Maimonides' contribution stands virtually without peer in the Jewish world. Maimonides' work is acclaimed by all strands of the Jewish tradition. Maimonides work is highly regarded among the Hasidism because Maimonides was one of the first to incorporate the mystical teachings of the Kaballah. Zionists have a high regard for Maimonides because he declared that it is a mitzvah to take possession of Israel and to live in it. Orthodox Jews closely study the work of Maimonides in yeshivot all around the world. Liberal and Reform Jews have a high regard for the philosophical works of Maimonides. Commentary on the Mishnah made Jewish law easily accessible without large amounts of study of Talmud. The thirteen principles of faith - Jewish creed is still used and found in most Jewish prayer books. Established first code of Jewish law - Mishneh Torah which enabled Jews to know how to act in a given situation without reference to the Talmud. Maimonides code was the basis for the 16th century code of law - Skulkhan Aruch by Joseph Karo, on which modern Rabbis base their legal decisions. Maimonides made Judaism relevant to Jews living in an Islamic world- ensuring the continuance of traditional Judaism when it was under threat of being lost to Islam. He reconciled biblical Judaism with philosophy through his "Guide of the Perplexed". Showed that faith and reason were compatible and encouraged Jews to base their faith on reason. Enabled Judaism to withstand the threat from philosophy by showing that it could be open to intellectual debate and scrutiny. Provided leadership to scattered communities of the Jewish Diaspora at a time when they were being threatened by both Islam and the re-emergence of Greek philosophy.