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CHAPTER 50
AN INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
AND THE BIOSPHERE
OUTLINE
I. The Scope of Ecology
A. Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and
their environment
B. Ecological research ranges from the adaptations of organisms to the
dynamics of ecosystems
C. Ecology provides a scientific context for evaluating environmental issues
II. Abiotic Factors of the Biosphere
A. Climate and other abiotic factors are important determinants of the
biosphere's distribution of organisms
III. Aquatic and Terrestrial Biomes
A. Aquatic biomes occupy the largest part of the biosphere
B. The geographical distribution of terrestrial biomes is based mainly on
regional variations in climate
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain why the field of ecology is a multidisciplinary science.
The field of ecology is a multidisciplinary science because ecological questions
form a continuum with those from other areas of biology, including genetics,
evolution, physiology, and behavior as well as those from other sciences, such as
chemistry , physics, geology, and meteorology.
2. Describe the relationship between ecology and evolution.
Ecology is basically the study of their interactions between organisms and their
environment, when in the other hand evolution relates to the changes that have
transformed life on earth.
3. Explain the importance of temperature, water, light, soil, and wind to living
organisms.
These are abiotic organisms and these affect the distribution of the biosphere’s
organisms.
6. Describe how environmental changes may produce behavioral, physiological,
morphological, or adaptive responses in organisms.
When the climate changes in an environment certain living things have to adapt to
the changes. This can set about changes like coevolution or even mutualism or
communalism.
8. Describe the characteristics of the major biomes: tropical forest, savanna, desert,
chaparral, temperate grassland, temperate forest, taiga, tundra.
Figures 46.13-Figure 46.20
10. Using a diagram, identify the various zones found in the marine environment.
See figure 46.36 in the green book.
CHAPTER 52
POPULATION ECOLOGY
OUTLINE
I. Characteristics of Populations
A. Two important characteristics of any population are density and the spacing of
individuals
B. Demography is the study of factors that affect the growth and decline of
populations
II. Life History Traits
A. Life histories are highly diverse but exhibit patterns in their variability
B. Limited resources mandate trade-offs between investments in reproduction and
in survival
III. Population Growth Models
A. An experimental model of population growth describes an idealized population
in an unlimited environment
IV. Regulation of Population Growth
A. Density-dependent factors regulate population growth by varying with the
density
B. The occurrence and severity of density-independent factors are unrelated to
population density
C. A mix of density-dependent and density-independent factors probably limits the
growth of most populations
D. Some populations have regular boom and bust cycles
V. Human Population Growth
A. The human population has been growing almost exponentially for centuries but
will not be able to do so indefinitely
OBJECTIVES
1. Define the scope of population ecology.
All characteristics of population research including measuring diversity, patters of
dispersion, and limiting factors.
2. Distinguish between density and dispersion.
Density is the number of individual per unit area or volume and dispersion is the
spacing of individuals.
3. Explain how ecologists measure density of a species.
To count a population of species may be almost impossible therefore ecologists use
different methods to count species foe example they use most numbers are just
estimates done over a certain area another technique commonly used to estimate
wildlife populations is the mark-recapture method.
4. Explain how age structure, generation time, and sex structure of populations can
affect population growth.
These things can affect population growth in that the birth rate and death rate can
both be affected by these factors.
6. Describe the characteristics of populations which exhibit Type I, Type II, and
Type III survivorship curves.
Figure 47.4
8. Explain how density-dependent factors affect population growth.
Known
9. Describe how weather and climate can function as density-independent factors
in controlling population growth.
Known
10. Explain how density-dependent and density-independent factors may work
together to control a population's growth.
Knew from reading.
11. List the three major characteristics of a life history and explain how each
affects the:
a. Number of offspring produced by an individual
b. Population's growth
1.Population rates
2. Death Rates
3. Traits of organisms.
A-The tell how many are produced
B-Tells the population growth due to that it contains total population, birth and
death rates.
12. Explain how predation can affect life history through natural selection.
This is the fact of the survival of the fittest.
13. Distinguish between r-selected populations and K-selected populations.
r-selected- exponential growth
k-selected-goes until carrying capacity
CHAPTER 53
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
OUTLINE
I. Early Hypotheses of Community Structure
II. Interactions between Populations of Different Species
A. Intraspecific interactions can be strong selection factors in evolution
B. Interspecific interactions may have positive, negative, or neutral effects on a
population's density: an overview
C. Predation and parasitism are (+ /-) interactions: a closer look
D. Interspecific competitions are (- / - ) interactions: a closer look
E. Commensalism and mutualism are (+ / 0) and (+ / +) interactions, respectively:
a closer look
III. Interspecific Interactions and Community Structure
A. Predators can alter community structure by moderating competition among prey
species
B. Mutualism and parasitism can have community-wide effects
C. Interspecific competition influences populations of many species and can affect
community structure
B. Humans are the most widespread agents of disturbance
OBJECTIVES
2. Explain the relationship between species richness, relative abundance, and
diversity.
Species richness is the many different kinds of species and relative abundance is
the certain species amount in a certain population. Also the diversity is the
evolution of the certain species.
3. List four properties of a community, and explain the importance of each.
Size-amount of individuals in a population.
Density-amount of individuals per area or volume occupied.
Dispersion-the way population is distributed
Age structure-description of the abundance of individuals of each age.
4. Explain how interspecific competition may affect community structure.
Table 48.1
5. Describe the competitive exclusion principle, and explain how competitive
exclusion may affect community structure.
When two of the same species need the same resources and one needs to succeed
while the other is eliminated or one coevolves and has a realized niche.
6. Distinguish between an organism's fundamental niche and realized niche.
Fundamental niche-absence of competing species
Realized niche-when competitors are present this is the niche so they can coexist.
10. Distinguish between Batesian mimicry and Mullerian mimicry.
Batesian-mimics the coloration of a species that has a defense mechanism.
Mullerian-all with same defense mechanisms share same coloration.
12. Explain the role of predators in community structure.
The consume totally or partially a plant or animal.
13. Distinguish among parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism.
Parasitism-host harmed and parasite benefits.
Figure 48.13 and .14
15. Distinguish between primary succession and secondary succession.
Primary-where an environment is made where none is possible.
Secondary-Where a community is partially destroyed by some damaging event.
CHAPTER 54
ECOSYSTEMS
OUTLINE
I. Trophic Relationships in Ecosystems
A. Trophic relationships determine an ecosystem's routes of energy flow and
chemical cycling
B. Primary producers include plants, algae, and many species of bacteria
C. Many primary and higher-order consumers are opportunistic feeders
D. Decomposition interconnects all trophic levels
II. Energy Flow in Ecosystems
A. An ecosystem's energy budget depends on primary productivity
B. As energy flows through an ecosystem, much is lost at each trophic level
III. Cycling of Chemical Elements in Ecosystems
A. Biological and geological processes move nutrients among organic and
inorganic compartments
IV. Human Impacts on Ecosystems
A. The human population is disrupting chemical cycles throughout the biosphere
B. Toxins can become concentrated in successive trophic levels of food webs
C. Human activities are causing fundamental changes in the composition of the
atmosphere
D. The exploding human population is altering habitats and reducing biodiversity
worldwide
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the importance of autotrophic organisms with respect to energy flow
and nutrient cycling in ecosystems.
All are need to perform energy flow and nutrient cycling. Organisms are all
needed because the move everything around.
2. List and describe the importance of the four consumer levels found in an
ecosystem.
Figure 49.1
3. Explain how gross primary productivity is allocated by the plants in an
ecosystem.
Plants are the primary producers in an ecosystem the take up all of the nutrients
and all the resources to provide the whole ecosystem with food.
5. Explain why productivity declines at each trophic level.
Common Sense
6. Distinguish between energy pyramids and biomass pyramids.
Figure 14-7 in Review Book
8. Describe the carbon cycle, and explain why it is said to result from the
reciprocal processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
It is in the atmosphere, then plants absorb N and animals eat plants, then CO2 is
released through respiration and decomposition. Plants deal with the
photosynthesis when they release CO2 and cellular respiration releases CO2
9. Describe the nitrogen cycle, and explain the importance of nitrogen fixation to
all living organisms.
Figure 49.11
10. Explain how phosphorus is recycled locally in most ecosystems.
Figure 49.12
17. Describe how increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide could
affect the Earth.
The more CO2 in the environment the more fatalities. Too much CO2 causes the
lungs to overwork.
18. Describe how human interference might alter the biosphere.
Known