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Rome
In 509 BCE the Romans overthrew the Etruscans and began the Roman Republic.
During the time of the Republic, there were about 1 million people in Rome.
Rome quickly expanded its borders with near continuous warfare.
It reached from the Euphrates River to Scotland.
There were 2 distinct classes - the Patricians (wealthy upper class citizens)
and the Plebeians (lower class & poorer)
Look for:
Sculptures of real people, not gods
Use of concrete, round arches, and barrel vaults in architecture
Propaganda in all art forms
SLIDE - Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia. Palestrina, Italy. 100 BCE.
Handout
Romans built temples, palaces & tombs for the rich & powerful
Also had to build for ordinary people efficiently and inexpensively.
Created new forms using concrete. WHY?
Stone was expensive and hard to quarry and move
But concrete uses crushed brick, rubble and cement - lighter & cheaper.
Stone building requires a more skilled class of worker
Concrete made by semi-skilled workers directed by a few experienced supervisors
Creative Roman architectural planning & concrete construction.
Discovered 16 miles SE of Rome, after teams cleared rubble from WW2 bombings.
Dedicated to FORTUNA, the goddess of fate and chance, or “good fortune”.
The grandest building of all its time in Rome
Spread over 7 terraces that covered a steep hillside.
Hellenistic influence in its size and scale.
Mostly concrete, with a thin outer layer of stucco and limestone.
Directs the worshipper’s movement like the temple of Hat-shep-sut.
To get to the temple, have to follow the staircases and ramps
Side colonnades and symmetrically placed circular niches.
Finally, from the 7th level, a huge theater-like semicircular pavilion
The actual temple was behind this pavilion - a small tholos.
Whole hillside of terraces & temple symbolizes Romans power - immense building skill.
SLIDE - Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Rome, Italy. 75 BCE.
A more “typical” piece of Roman worship architecture is the urban temple.
This one dedicated to Portunus - the god of harbors & ports.
It resembles the Etruscan & Greek plans.
Ionic columns - freestanding on the porch,
Engaged columns (connected) around the cella. (room)
Decorative frieze around the entablature.
Has a rectangular cella and a porch at one end reached by a single flight of steps.
Pseudo-peripteral: some columns are engaged - not really columns all the way around.
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SLIDE - Head of Roman Patrician.
Otricoli, Italy. 75 - 50 BCE. Marble. Approx 1’ 2” tall.
An example of Republican VERISM – Truth.
Brutally realistic portraits,
Usually of older men who held powerful positions.
(Some women are also represented this way).
ALL are old. Only older people could hold a powerful position in Roman society.
Every wrinkle, jowl, sag is visible in the marble.
Compare to an idealized Greek portrait.
Is an identifiable person - actually a portrait.
Descendants would keep it when you die.
Romans were proud of their ancestors & lineage.
Would pose with busts of ancestors.
OLD HEADS ON YOUNG BODIES.
SLIDE - Atrium, House in Pompeii. Italy. Early 1st century.
Mt. Vesuvius erupted 79 CE (had been dormant, so Romans built on its slopes)
Pompeii had around 15,000 people when Vesuvius erupted - buried in ash.
Luxurious resort town - many middle & upper-class homes.
Poor Romans usually lived behind shops or above shop level off the street.
Wealthier Romans usually lived in a house consisting of many small rooms
They were laid out symmetrically around 1 or 2 open courtyards.
This is the house of the Vetti - 2 merchant brothers owned this house.
SLIDE - Roman House Plan.
You would enter into a corridor that led to an atrium (no ceiling) to let in the light.
In the atrium - an impluvium –a large shallow pool to collect rainwater.
Past the atrium, there is a reception room called the tablinum,
This is where the head of house would visit or meet with clients
Would place portrait busts of ancestors in the room.
A larger house might have a peristyle - a garden surrounded by a colonnaded walkway.
Open ceiling for light
Often a fountain, statues, mosaic floors, etc. for decoration.
Most private areas (bedrooms, sitting room, etc.) were entered from the peristyle.
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ROMAN WALL PAINTING
Many fine wall paintings were excavated all over the Roman Empire.
Had no windows, no actual architectural decoration to look at, so they painted walls.
(Upper & middle class homes)
True fresco - painted while plaster was still wet.
Styles changed through the years. 4 distinct styles:
1st Style
"Masonry style" (right). “Faux” finishes, like fake marble or oak finish.
Flat areas of rich color.
Copied the Greeks, who also did this with their walls.
2n Style
"Architectural style," Tried to make walls “dissolve” & look as if not walls at all.
Tried to create the illusion of 3D space on a flat surface.
Space extends beyond the room - used aerial & a sort of linear perspective.
Roman artists came close to developing a true linear perspective.
Painted cityscapes, landscapes & gardens with flowers, trees, etc.
Sometimes tried to make it look like a stage with a play going on.
Wall painting - Cityscape.
Italy. Late 1st century CE.
This painting uses primitive perspective to create the impression of real space.
Objects farther away are smaller, less bright (atmospheric perspective).
Wall painting - Dionastic Mystery Frieze.
Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy. 60 – 50 BCE. 5’ 4” tall.
Room probably used for cult rituals of Dionysus (unofficial religion - mostly women).
Women “Married” Dionysus, like nuns “marry” Catholic God.
Seems to show some sort of initiation rite - whippings, etc.
Wall Painting - Garden Scene.
Primaporta, Italy. 30 - 20 BCE. 6’ 7” high.
The artist painted this to look as if you are on a porch or pavilion,
Looking out over a low paneled wall into a fruit orchard.
Flowers, birds, etc.
Also uses atmospheric perspective by blurring things in background.
Can see a little primitive 1 pt. perspective.
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3rd Style
Overall appearance is FLAT and dream-like - NOT a 3D illusion of space.
Weird thin columns, lines.
Lots of red & black flat backgrounds with linear elements.
4th Style
Creamy, white walls, with "framed images," like pictures in an exhibition or gallery.
Sort of combines the previous 3 styles with painted “frames” enclosing them.
The images do not relate to one another, nor do they present a narrative.
Landscapes, cityscapes, portraits, fake marble, architectural elements, etc.
SLIDE - Wall Painting - Still Life with Peaches,
Detail of a 4th style wall painting. Italy. 63 CE. 1’ 2” x 1’ 1”.
Clarity of outline, water in glass is visible
Evokes naturalism in details, & enhances status of homeowner
SLIDE - Wall Painting - Portrait of Husband & Wife.
Pompeii, Italy. Late 1st century CE. Approx. 1’ 11” x 1’ 8”
Part of a 4th style wall painting from a niche.
The man holds a scroll, the woman holds a stylus and a writing tablet.
Probably a wedding portrait - to suggest a high level of education of the couple,
(Done even when they were poorly educated, or even illiterate)
Like taking portraits in fine poofy wedding dress,
Even if you really live in jeans & T-shirts
The faces definitely represent real individuals.
SLIDE - Wall Painting - Young Woman Writing.
Pompeii, Italy. Late 1st century CE. Diameter 14”
Portrait of a pretty young lady w/ curly hair pulled up into a gold net.
She wears large, gold earrings
Appears to be thinking about what to write
Somewhat idealized, but humanizing - she chews the tip of her stylus.
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SLIDE - Augustus. Primaporta, Italy.
1st century CE. Marble. 6’ 8” tall. Copy of a bronze original from 20 BCE.
Augustus ruled 27 BCE - 14 CE. (Octavian) Caesar’s grandnephew & adopted son.
Called “Augustus”, means “Supreme Ruler”. He was the 1st emperor of Rome.
*Changed Rome from a Republic to an Empire.
He continued the forms of Republican government, but the senate still met.
Seemed democratic, but Augustus kept the REAL authority for himself.
During his reign, Rome was mostly peaceful & prosperous.
Time of the “Pax Romana” - Roman peace.
The verism (accurate and faithful portraits of individuals) of old men was gone
August ruled by age 31. But still veristic in that it does look like him.
An Idealistic portrayal of emperor.
Can see the Greek influence
Romans liked the combination of Greek idealism & Roman individuality.
This was the most popular image of Augustus.
There are at least 148 replicas of this sculpture.
Blatant Imperial propaganda:
1. Larger than life size
2. Has same pose & ideal proportions of Polykleitos’ Spear Bearer.
3. Cupid, son of Venus, rides a dolphin next to his leg
His family claims to be descendants of Venus – divine blood
4. Wears armor and a commander’s baton, but his feet are bare (divine?)
5. Augustus was in his late 70’s when he died,
Yet he is always portrayed as a vigorous young ruler.
Began his rule at age 31, but NEVER ages in images.
He was younger for this sculpture, but ALWAYS shown this age.
Most people in Rome never actually saw him in person. No T.V.!
6. Projects the image of a beginning ruler, touched by the gods
Governs by reason & persuasion, not by force.
*He was not trying to faithfully record his reign, but to shape the public’s opinion of him.
*His wife, Livia, also sculpted a lot, often shown as a female deity. Also never ages.
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SLIDE - Ara Pacis (altar of Augustan peace).
Rome, Italy. 13 - 9 BCE. Marble. 34’ 5” x 38’
An altar that commemorates Augustus’s triumphant return to Rome
Made after conquering Gaul (now France).
Combination of realism and idealism in Roman sculpture.
Shows that Augustus brought PEACE to the land. Propaganda, of course.
It is a walled rectangular enclosure with the altar inside
Approach by ascending a flight of steps on the west.
The decoration is relief sculpture - portraits, allegories, religious & political narratives
The North side has double lines of Senators.
The South has images of Imperial family members
On the West (front), are past kings, Romulus (the first king of Rome), and others.
On the East are personifications – human symbols representing war and peace.
Spiraling vegetation is a characteristic of Roman decorative sculpture.
SLIDE - Imperial Procession (detail of Ara Pacis, South side). 5’ 2”
Augustus with members of his family waiting behind him.
These are actual individuals participating in a specific even at a known time.
Depth of carving varies – creates sense of space & background.
The older man with the covered head at the far left is Marcus Agrippa,
He would have been Augustus’s successor if he hadn’t died in 12 CE.
The small child tugging at his robe is probably Agrippa’s son Gaius Caesar.
The woman next to him may be Augustus’s wife, Livia,
Next, her oldest son, Tiberius, who would become the next emperor.
Other relatives follow, including several children.
The depiction of children in an official relief was new to the Augustan period
Reflects Augustus’s desire to promote private family life.
SLIDE - Female Personifications - Allegory of Peace - 5’ 2” high.
A Relief from the East side of the Ara Pacis.
Shows personifications of War & Peace, represented by women as symbols.
Woman, who represents both Mother Earth and Peace, nurtures the Roman people.
(Romans represented by 2 chubby babies - Romulus & Remus).
Fruits & grains, contented animals - fertility & bounty of the earth in peaceful times.
She is with 2 young women with billowing veils - represent peaceful winds of change.
Left rides a Swan, the Right a sea creature, head looks dragon-like. By her hip.
Shows Rome’s dominance over the sea.
The idealized figures are Greek influenced - Looks 3D
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Rome’s influence in France
SLIDE - Maison Carree. Nimes, France. 20 BCE.
From the early Imperial period
Maison Carree means “square house” in French.
Larger & more richly decorated versions of the Temple of Fortunus Virilis.
Has Corinthian columns.
More columns in front (it has 6 - only 4 for Virilis.)
Both used engaged columns, though. Pseudo-peripteral.
Was built as part of the forum of Nimes.
Rich decoration appropriate - Nimes was one of the richest provinces of the Empire.
Summarizes Roman religious architecture:
Technologically advanced - concrete
Conservative in design & perfectly proportioned (Greek influence)
Elegant sculptural details – Corinthian columns.
Thomas Jefferson saw this & liked it so much it inspired his designs in Virginia.
SLIDE - Pont du Gard. Nimes (Southern) France. 16 BCE
Roman leaders had to make life nice for its citizens & people they conquered
Government built architecture of unprecedented scale and complexity.
Built administrative & legal centers (forums & basilicas)
Recreational facilities (theaters, coliseums, public baths)
Aqueducts to carry water.
This isn’t the 1st Roman aqueduct, but one of the most beautiful.
This aqueduct is still functional; if it had connecting links it could move water.
At one time it brought 100 gallons of water a day for every person in Nimes
Brought water from 30 miles away - from springs in the North.
Made from stacked walls with arcades (a series of regularly spaced arches).
The first 2 levels have roadbeds, the top level was a walking path
Still used today as a pedestrian bridge.
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SLIDE 15 - Colosseum. Rome. 70 - 80 CE.
The Flavians: Roman leaders
Came to power after the last Claudian leader, Nero, was forced to killed himself.
Nero was a selfish, oblivious, pleasure-seeking useless ruler.
The Flavians offered a new hope to Romans, politically.
Vespasian was the 1st Flavian - a Roman general (Family name was Flavius).
Had 2 sons who later ruled, Titus & Domitian.
Romans were as sports-crazy as Americans, and the Flavian Emperors responded.
They built this, Rome’s greatest arena, to appease the people angered by Nero,
Drained the artificial lake from Nero’s grounds, built the Colosseum on top of it.
Was called the “Flavian Amphitheather” during Roman times.
Started by Vespasian, completed under his son, Titus.
It is Oval - 615’ x 510’ in size.159’ high.
The oval shape came from the idea of two theaters placed facing each other.
Concrete construction skeleton, was covered with marble, which has been stripped.
Could hold 55,000 spectators.
76 entrance doors, 3 levels of seats, and a standing area at the top.
Every seat had an uninterrupted view.
Stadiums today are still based on this efficient plan - can move easily in & out.
Romans would watch animal hunts, fights to the death
Some between two or more gladiators, or gladiators and beasts,
Performances of trained animals or acrobats
Mock sea battles - they would flood the bottom of the Colosseum.
For the first 100 days had opening performances…
Thousands of animals & gladiators died for the amusement of the spectators.
SLIDE 15.5 - Colosseum, FLOOR, detail
After the fall of Rome, people stripped away the marble seats & flooring
We can now see what the Roman people could not.
The floor was laid over a foundation of service rooms and tunnels
Provided an area for the athletes, performers, animals, and equipment.
The floor was covered by sand, or “arena”, in Latin, hence the English term.
Sand helped absorb the blood.
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SLIDE - Colosseum, outer wall arches.
The Outer wall consists of 3 levels of arcades topped by a wall-like top story.
Each arch in the arcade is framed by engaged columns.
Friezes mark the divisions between the levels.
Each level also uses a different architectural order, more complex as you go up.
Doric columns on the first level, Plain Etruscan-style
Ionic on the second level.
Corinthian on the 3rd level.
The Romans liked this systematic use of column orders;
Sturdy on the lower levels, to lighter and more decorative at the top.
Logical progression
Orderly, dignified, and visually satisfying.
Unfortunately, much of the Colosseum was dismantled
Marble, metal fittings, and materials stripped for later buildings.
SLIDE - The Arch of Titus. Rome. 81 CE. Concrete and marble. 50’ tall.
The “triumphal arch” is a distinctive Roman feature.
Part architecture, part sculpture.
They were usually commissioned by an emperor or a wealthy family.
Domitian commissioned this to honor his brother, Titus.
Titus ruled before him for only 2 years
Titus captured Jerusalem in the name of Rome, which is the subject of this arch.
The dedication inscribed on this arch on the top section reads: “From the Senate and the
Roman People to the Deified Titus Flavius Vespasianus Augustus, son of the
Deified Vespasian.” (Roman emperors often proclaimed gods after their deaths).
Romans recorded important events with solemn prose & beautiful inscriptions in stone.
Used elegant Roman capital letters
Perfectly sized and spaced to be read from a distance.
These arches commemorate triumphs or formal victory celebrations
The victorious general (or emperor, or whoever) parades through the streets
With his troops, his captives, & his booty.
It was a base for a 50-foot statue of a 4-horse chariot & driver (another triumph symbol).
Barrel-vault for support.
Composite capitals - part Ionic scroll, part acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order.
Domitian placed it at the entrance of the Roman Forum.
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SLIDE 18 - Spoils from Temple of Solomon. Relief panel, Arch of Titus.
Jews revolted against the Romans.
Titus captured the city of Jerusalem and crushed them.
The Romans sacked & destroyed a temple in Jerusalem
Carried off its sacred treasures
Displayed them in this triumphant march through Rome.
Here, Titus’s soldiers flaunt their stolen booty (SPOILS)
The reliefs on the inside walls of the arch depict this event.
Feel the motion of the soldiers marching through the street.
Can imagine a disorderly crowd and the shouts from soldiers & onlookers.
Can see a menorah (seven branched lamp holder) that dominates the image.
Romans stole it from Temple of Jerusalem
Figures are carved to show depth of space.
Closer figures carved in higher relief,
Figures in the background are carved in much lower relief.
SLIDE 19 - Bust of a Flavian Woman. Rome. 90 CE. Marble. 2’ 1” high.
Sometimes Roman patrons wanted EXACT likenesses
But sometimes they wanted a little idealization.
This woman’s identity isn’t known, maybe a noblewoman
Definitely an idealized portrait.
There are recognizable features, a strong nose & jaw,
Heavy brows (almost a uni-brow), deep-set eyes, and a long neck.
The flesh is perfectly smooth, and
Fine nose & soft, full lips are too perfect.
Shows a fashionable hairstyle for upper-class women of the time –
Masses of ringlets piled high in front.
Carving the hair required great skill;
The holes in the centers of the ringlets were actually punched out with a drill.
The overall effect is very lifelike - yet too perfect to be real.