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Question 1
Mathilda has been struggling in her life in recent months as she tries to find a direction for her future.
She is a first-year college student who has moved away from home for the first time in her life, and is
struggling to make friends and fit in on her new college campus. Examine Mathilda’s situation using
at least 4 of the following psychological orientations and give a brief description of how each
approach would view and explain her situation.
 Psychoanalytic
 Behavioral
 Psychodynamic
 Cognitive
 Humanistic
 Sociocultural
 Biopsychological
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Psychoanalytic Theory
Mathilda is repressing threatening urges and desires about her college experience and these repressed
urges are making her feel upset as they attempt to surface. She might also be experiencing negative
effects of childhood traumas or experiences that have not yet been fully resolved.
Point 2: Behavioral Theory
Mathilda is being reinforced for her negative feelings and her difficulty making friends. Through
reinforcement, these feelings and problems are made more likely to continue to happen. Perhaps she
receives attention (response) from other students or from family members when she feels upset
(stimulus), so she continues to feel upset to elicit that response.
Point 3: Psychodynamic Theory
Mathilda is struggling with her developing sense of self as she moves away from home and starts
college. This struggle is resulting in difficulties with making friends and fitting in.
Point 4: Cognitive Theory
Mathilda is having negative thoughts about moving away from home, which are causing her to
behave in ways that are making it difficult for her to fit in and make friends. For example, perhaps
Mathilda has an irrational thought that she isn’t good enough to have friends, so she doesn’t go out or
approach people who could become her friends.
Point 5: Humanistic Theory
Mathilda is experiencing some interruption of the free will that people are believed to possess, and
this is leading to a blockage of her ultimate quest for self-actualization.
Point 6: Sociocultural Theory
Mathilda’s behavior is being influenced by social norms, fads, class differences and ethnic identity.
Perhaps it is trendy or cool on her campus to feel depressed or have negative feelings. Or maybe her
college campus has many students who go home on the weekend and don’t socialize, making it hard
for Mathilda to meet people.
Point 7: Biopsychological Theory
Mathilda’s feelings are influenced by hormones, genetics and/or neurotransmitters, or perhaps
pathology in specific parts of the brain.
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Question 2
The science of psychology has several different methods by which questions are asked and the answers to
those questions are pursued. Compare and contrast the following research approaches in psychology,
making sure to highlight the advantages and limitations of each:
 Naturalistic observation
 Case Studies
 Surveys
 Experiments
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Naturalistic Observation
Advantages
1. provides realistic descriptions of behavior
2. allows observation of individuals in natural (and often more comfortable settings)
Limitations
1. observer effect may cause subjects to behave differently
2. observer bias when observer only sees actions that support their expectations
3. conditions in natural settings are always changing, and thus introduce more potential
error into the research
Point 2: Case Studies
Advantages
1. provides rich detail
2. may be the only way to get particular kinds of information
3. may be the only useful approach to studying situations where there are very few
examples of the research topic in question
Limitations
1. cannot apply the results to other similar people (lack of generalizability)
2. observer bias
Point 3: Surveys
Advantages
1. can get private information
2. can get lots of information about a large number of people
Limitations
1. have to sample carefully to ensure generalizability
2. participants might give inaccurate answers due to misremembering or courtesy bias
3. questions have to be careful that questions are worded and arranged to avoid biasing
participants
4. social desirability effect – participants might give “popular” answers that are not honest
responses to survey questions
Point 4: Experiments
Advantages
1. can provide evidence for causation or relationships between variables, rather than just a
description
2. allows research to apply enhanced control over many of the research variables
Limitations
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1.
2.
3.
4.
have to sample carefully to ensure generalizability
placebo effect can bias participants’ behavior
experimenter effect can cause the participant to change his response pattern
some research questions would be impossible or unethical to explore experimentally
Question 3
Marlon was in a very unfortunate automobile accident during which he sustained an injury to his head.
Days later when his family was with him in the hospital room, they had a conference with his neurologist,
who informed him that there was some brain injury. Pretend that you are the neurologist, and discussion
what functional impairments might result from an injury to at least six of the following parts of the brain:
 Cerebellum
 Medulla
 Pons
 Hypothalamus
 Hippocampus
 Frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
 Temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex
 Parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex
 Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Cerebellum
This part of the brain maintains muscle coordination and balance. If a person had impairments to this
part of the brain they might not be able to walk or stand up straight. They also may have difficulties
with everyday activities such as walking, getting dressed because of lack of muscle coordination.
With both balance being off and muscle coordination being impaired the person may have difficulties
functioning in normal every day activities.
Point 2: Medulla
The medulla is the part of the brain responsible for breathing, swallowing, and other life sustaining
functions. If a person has had major impairment to this area of the brain they may need to be placed
on machines to help them breathe and be placed on a feeding tube to ensure adequate nutrition.
Severe damage to the medulla is often a life-ending injury.
Point 3: Pons
The pons plays a different role in the brain. The pons help influences a person’s sleep cycle, their
dreams, and arousal level. If a person had impairment in this area of the brain their sleep cycle may be
off and they may have erratic dreams. They may also have difficulty adjusting their sleep/wake
phases to any sort of normal pattern that would allow for productive work and/or school functioning.
Point 4: Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus regulates the amount of fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression we feel. If there is
damage to hypothalamus a person may have altered emotions that change drastically. The person
may experience an increased or decreased sexual drive and they may lash out at others and become
very aggressive. If a patient shows mood altering symptoms there may be a problem with this part of
the brain.
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Point 5: Hippocampus
The hippocampus allows people to learn things and have certain forms of memory. It also gives the
ability to compare sensory information. Someone experiencing memory loss or problems and the
inability to learn new things or understand may have trouble with their hippocampus.
Point 6: Frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
The frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex deals with higher mental processes and decision making. It also
helps in the production of speech. If the patient has impairments in the frontal lobe they may have
difficulties making decisions and thinking clearly. They also may struggle with responding to people
and making clear word production. It may be very difficult for the person to speak in a correct manner
too.
Point 7: Temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex
The temporal lobe deals with hearing as well as meaningful speech reception. If a person has damage
to the temporal lobe they may experience pain in their ears or even have difficulty hearing. Damage
to this area may also compromise an individual’s ability to understand words/sentences that are being
directed to them.
Point 8: Parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex
The parietal lobe is responsible for somatosensory reception, including senses such as taste, touch and
temperature sensations. If there is problems with the lobe things may taste very different to people
that may normally taste fine to them. Things may also feel different if they touch a particular fabric
or object. Also their temperature sensations may be off.
Point 9: Occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex
This area of the brain helps the functioning of vision. The ability to interpret incoming visual
sensation may be compromised based on the level of damage that occurs. Blurred vision or complete
loss of eyesight may occur if there are problems in the occipital lobe. We also recognize and make
associations between what we see and what is stored in memory.
Question 4
Neural communication is often described as “an electrochemical process.” Discuss why this is an
appropriate label, making sure to include a description of the function of the major parts of a neuron, and
the basic characteristics of neural activity. Would it be possible for this communication process to be
effective with only chemical or electrical components? Support your answer.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The parts of the neuron
Neural communication is described as an electrochemical process because through different
specialized cells messages are sent electrically within a single neuron. In order for these messages to
be sent to a different neuron (interneural communication) a chemical system is required.
The neural communication is dependent on the various parts of the neuron.
1. Dendrites - the dendrite is a branch-like structure that receives messages from other
neurons.
2. Soma - this is the cell body that helps maintains life for the cell and allows the process to
occur.
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3. Axon - the axon carries the neural message toward other neurons by conducting an action
potential (electrical impulse) to the very end of a neuron.
4. Glial cells - these cells provide support for the neurons to grow.
5. Myelin - this is a fatty substance surrounding the axons to insulate, protect, and increase
speed in the neural process of sending messages.
6. Synaptic vesicles – these are tiny sacs that are found in the branches at the end of a
neuron’s axon, and they store chemicals called neurotransmitters.
7. Neurotransmitters – these are chemical transmitters substances that take a message from
one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) and communicate that message to another neuron
(the postsynaptic neuron). Neurotransmitters can either stimulate a neuron’s firing
(excitatory neurotransmission) or inhibit a neuron’s firing (inhibitor neurotransmission).
Point 2: The electrochemical nature of neural communication
The electrical impulses, or action potential, that begins at a soma and travels to the end of an axon
stimulates the release of chemicals that send messages to another neuron. For this reason, the process
alternates between an electrical and chemical mechanism. Both processes are required for neural
transmission to work effectively, and this is the reason why neural communication is described as an
electrochemical process.
Question 5
There are many different theories that explain how we perceive the world around us. Give a description of
each of the following theories, making sure to include a discussion of relevant anatomical components of
each theory:
 The trichromatic theory of color vision
 The opponent-process theory of color vision
 The place theory of pitch
 The frequency (frequency-volley) theory of pitch
 The gate-control theory of pain
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The trichromatic theory of color vision
The theory suggests that the eye is made up of cones that are maximally receptive to light in the red,
blue, and green ranges of the visible spectrum. This theory emphasizes the importance of the
reflection of light which than determines the color seen. It is the combination of cones and the rate at
which they fire that results in a color vision experience.
Point 2: The opponent-process theory of color vision
In this theory there are four primary colors - red, yellow, blue, and green. Each cone is paired with
another color (i.e.: red and green, blue and yellow) When one cone of color is stimulated the other
member of the pair cannot be working. For example, you cannot have reddish greens or bluish
yellows. This theory is processed through the thalamus in the area of lateral geniculate nucleus
(LGN). Through the LGN it is sent to occipital lobe and the image is produced. This theory is
effective at explaining the experience of protonopia (red/green or yellow/blue color blindness) and
negative color afterimages.
Point 3: The place theory of pitch
The place theory of pitch says that the pitch a person hears is completely dependent on where the hair
cells that are stimulated on the organ of Corti are located. For high pitch sounds the hair is stimulated
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near the oval window but for a low pitch sound the hair is stimulated farther away from the oval
window.
Point 4: The frequency (frequency-volley) theory of pitch
The frequency theory states that pitch is related to the speed of the vibration of the entire basilar
membrane. The faster the membrane vibrates the higher the pitch that someone will hear, while
slower vibrations are associated with a lower pitch experience.
Point 5: The gate-control theory of pain
In the gate-control theory of pain, the pain passes through a “gate” located in the spinal cord. The
activity of the gate can be closed by non-pain signals coming into the spinal cord from the body and
by signals coming from the brain. The gate is a representation of balance in the neural activity of cells
in spinal cord that receive information and send it to the brain. These “gates” can also be closed by
chemicals that are internally (endorphins) or externally (analgesics) produced.
Question 6
You wake up in the morning after getting less-than-adequate sleep the night before, and come to the
kitchen for a warm and refreshing cup of coffee. The coffee brews in several minutes, and as you wait
you close your eyes and listen to the “drip drip drip” of brewing java. The scent of the liquid happiness
fills your nostrils, and that first sip tastes like heaven. Discuss the path of at least two of the following
sensory systems - including vision and either hearing, smell, or taste – as the sensory experience of the
coffee makes it from the pot to your brain. Make sure to include the major parts of each system, and
giving relevant information about how external stimuli are interpreted as psychological experiences.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Vision
Vision allows the image of coffee to be seen by focusing the image on the retina where it is received
by the rods and cones. The rods and cones use light to focus the image and color and then of coffee
goes through bipolar, ganglion, and amacrine cells to the optic nerve. The optic nerves from both the
left and right eyes come together at the optic chiasm and optic tract where the image is sent via nerve
signal to the occipital lobe of the brain for processing.
Point 2: Hearing
The process of hearing the coffee being made in the coffee maker would involve several parts of the
ear. The pinnae would direct sound waves into the external ear canal and those sound waves would
strike the tympanic membrane, or eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations would stimulate the
three ossicles – the hammer, anvil, and stirrup – and eventually make their way to the basilar
membrane in the cochlea. The vibrations would cause a wave-effect in the basilar membrane,
eventually stimulating hair cells on the organ of corti. These hair cells generate a neural impulse that
is sent, via the auditory nerve, to the brain for processing.
Point 3: Smell
When drinking and making coffee your nose plays a vital part in the process. The chemicals of scent
go up into the high sinus cavity where they are received by the olfactory bulb. From there they are
sent to the brain for processing the specific scent.
Point 4: Taste
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Taste buds are important when it comes to identifying a particular part of the object. For coffee when
a person takes that first sip, their taste buds begin to become aroused and send a signal from the
tongue, via gustatory nerves, to the brain. There are five different tastes on your tongue, sweet, sour,
bitter, and salty. Which part of the tongue is affected by the food/drink will also have a role in the
particular taste overtones that you experience, and past experience with coffee may contribute to
whether you perceive the taste as positive or negative.
Question 7
Choose 4 of the following sleep disorders and give a thorough review of (a) the symptoms associated with
such illnesses, (b) (where appropriate) the stage of sleep where they occur and (c) the possible
treatments/responses that may occur to help relieve these sleep difficulties:
 Insomnia
 Sleep Apnea
 Somnambulism
 Narcolepsy
 REM Behavior Disorder
 Night Terrors
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Insomnia
Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. Some causes of
insomnia are worrying, trying too hard to sleep, having anxiety, too much caffeine, indigestion, or
aches and pain. There are several things a person can do to avoid insomnia; a person should only go
to bed when they are sleepy, they shouldn’t do anything in bed but sleep, and don’t try too hard to
get to sleep. Also by keeping a regular schedule, not taking sleeping pills, drinking alcohol, or doing
drugs, insomnia can be reduced or completely avoided.
Point 2: Sleep Apnea
Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person stops breathing for nearly a half a minute or more during
sleep. When breathing stops, there will be a sudden silence, followed shortly by a gasping sound as
the person struggles to get air into the lungs. Some symptoms of apnea include loud snoring and a
lack of “quality” sleep. Many people do not wake up while this is happening, but they do not get a
good, restful night’s sleep. Apnea is a serious disorder that causes other issues like heart problems. To
treat apnea there are several options depending on the severity of it. Mild apnea can be treated usually
with just a device worn on the nose to open the nostrils and help breathing. There are also nasal
sprays or other devices that a person can use/sleep with to help prevent sleep apnea from occurring.
A common cause of sleep apnea is obesity and it’s more common in men. Very young infants can
also experience sleep apnea because of the immaturity in the brain stem. Severe sleep apnea is often
treated with the use of a CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) device.
Point 3: Somnambulism
Somnambulism is also known as sleepwalking. Somnambulism affects 20% of the population and is
more common in childhood and for boys than girls. Sleepwalking can be something such as a person
sitting up in bed during sleep, or may involve walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator or
even eating, and getting into the car. Many people with this condition outgrow it by adolescence.
Most people with this disorder do not remember the sleepwalking occurrence the next day.
Point 4: Narcolepsy
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Narcolepsy is a kind of “sleep seizure” where the person may slip suddenly into REM sleep during
the day (especially when the person experiences strong emotions). Another symptom is excessive
daytime sleepiness that results in the person falling asleep throughout the day at inappropriate times
and in inappropriate places. These sleep attacks may also come without warning to the person. Along
with these sleep attacks cataplexy can occur, which creates a sudden and dangerous loss of muscle
tone.
Point 5: REM Behavior Disorder
REM Behavior Disorder is a rare sleep disorder where the brain mechanisms that normally inhibit
voluntary muscle movement fail. REM Behavior Disorder causes the person to thrash out in their
sleep and can even cause them to act out nightmares. This disorder usually affects men over the age
of 60.
Point 6: Night Terrors
Night terrors is a relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams or
thrashes around during deep sleep without waking fully. Some symptoms of night terrors are that the
person may sit up, scream, run around, or flail at someone. It also is not uncommon for a person to
have difficulty breathing and be in extreme panic and fear. Night terrors occur during stage 4 of
NREM sleep, and are most commonly seen during childhood.
Question 8
Drug use continues to be a serious problem in the United States. Give a definition of each of the following
categories of medication, and list at least two examples of drugs that would fall under each category.
Finally, distinguish between physical and psychological drug dependence.
 Stimulants
 Depressants
 Opioids
 Hallucinogens
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system. Some examples of
stimulants are amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine.
Point 2: Depressants
Depressants are drugs that slow the central nervous system. Some depressants are barbiturates or
tranquilizers, benzodiazepines, and alcohol.
Point 3: Opioids
Opioids suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous systems natural
receptor sites. Some examples of opioids are opium, morphine, and heroin.
Point 4: Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are drugs that alter or distort perception of sensory input. Some examples of
hallucinogens are LSD, PCP, Ecstasy, Mescaline, Psilocybin, and Marijuana.
Point 5: Physical and psychological drug dependence
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Physical dependence is when a person who uses drugs for some period of time, and the body becomes
unable to function normally without the drug and the person is said to be addicted or dependent on the
drug. Those with physical dependence often demonstrate tolerance (requiring more of the substance
to achieve the same effect) or withdrawal (experiencing very painful or aversive symptoms in the
absence of the substance). Psychological dependence is when a person believes that the drug is
needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being. The person believes and thinks
that the drug is required for survival. Though it may not necessarily involve physical symptoms,
psychological dependence can be enormously powerful and lead to inappropriate actions to obtain the
substance of choice.
Question 9
James has a new pet kitten, who he has named Lucy. He wants to give Lucy a treat, and being a new catowner the only thing he can think of to give her is dish of tuna fish. He goes into the kitchen, opens a can
of tuna with a can opener, and puts the treat on the floor for her to enjoy. Describe what might happen
over the next few weeks if James continues to give Lucy tuna fish in this way, utilizing the principles of
classical conditioning. Make sure the following concepts are included in your discussion:
 unconditioned and conditioned stimuli
 unconditioned and conditioned responses
 neutral stimulus
 stimulus discrimination and generalization
 extinction
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The process of classical conditioning
If James keeps giving Lucy the tuna fish he will begin a process of classical conditioning where Lucy
will learn from the tuna fish and eventually have an involuntary response after repeated weeks of
receiving tuna fish as a treat. Classical conditioning trains the stimulus to produce things that the
controller wants out of it. James will condition Lucy to produce a certain feeling or action every time
she sees or sometimes even smells tuna fish.
Point 2: Unconditioned and conditioned stimuli
An unconditioned stimulus is a naturally occurring stimulus that leads to involuntary response. In
James’s case, the UCS would be the tuna fish. A conditioned stimulus would be an event that acquires
the ability to produce a learned response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. In
James’s case the can opener would be the CS.
Point 3: Unconditioned and conditioned responses
An unconditioned response would be the reflex that involuntarily occurs from the UCS. In James’s
case, the UCR would be the cat’s wild and excited behavior when she smells/tastes the tuna fish. A
conditioned response is a learned response to a conditioned stimulus. In James’s case, the CR would
be the cat’s wild and excited behavior when she hears the sound of the can opener.
Point 4: Neutral stimulus
When no effect occurs in response to a stimulus that is a neutral stimulus. In James’s case, the can
opener was a neutral stimulus before the cat learned that it indicated the coming of tuna fish.
Point 5: Stimulus discrimination and generalization
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As weeks go on Lucy will still only have a response to the vibrating hum of James’s can opener, not
every vibration (a cell phone vibrating, the air conditioner or furnace turning on, the hum of a clothes
dryer) that she hears. The response to only the can opener occurs because of stimulus discrimination
where no generalized response or tendency will occur because there was only exposure to one
stimulus. However, the opposite of discrimination is stimulus generalization where Lucy may begin
to respond the conditioned response to others similar to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, if there
are vibrations that sound like the can opener – that are very similar to that original conditioned
stimulus – they may in fact cause Lucy to demonstrate the conditioned response.
Point 6: Extinction
Extinction occurs when the unconditioned response gradually fades away over time as a result of
presenting the CS without the UCS. In James’s case, if he goes into the kitchen each day and turns on
the can opener but does not give Lucy any tuna fish, the can opener will gradually lose its ability to
elicit the CR from Lucy. When the CR disappears, it is said to have been “extinguished.”
Question 10
E.L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect serves as the basis for the entire concept of operant conditioning.
Describe this law, and then discuss the basics of operant conditioning using examples from your own life.
Make sure that your answer integrates all of the following concepts: positive and negative reinforcement,
punishment by application and removal, extinction, generalization, discrimination, continuous
reinforcement, and the four schedules of partial reinforcement.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The Law of effect and operant conditioning
The Law of Effect by E.L Thorndike states that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence,
it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be
repeated. In operant conditioning a voluntary behavior occurs through the presence of pleasurable or
aversive consequences, and as Thorndike predicted those outcomes that are pleasurable serve to
strengthen the actions, while those that are aversive serve to weaken the actions.
Point 2: Positive and negative reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response by the addition or presentation of
pleasurable stimulus. Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement of a response by the subtraction or
removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus.
Point 3: Punishment by application and removal
The punishment by application is when an unpleasant stimulus is added to the situation (e.g.,
spanking). The punishment by removal is when a pleasurable stimulus is removed after a behavior
has occurred (e.g., taking away television privileges for a week).
Point 4: Extinction
In operant condition, extinction occurs when a particular behavior is not reinforced. While this may
serve a similar outcome as the use of a punishment, this tact of failing to attend to or reinforce the
action may be a more useful avenue depending on the objectionable behavior in question.
Point 5: Generalization
Generalization also occurs in operant conditioning, where the subject associates learned responses to
similar stimuli as the one to which conditioning originally occurred.
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Point 6: Discrimination
Discrimination is any stimulus, such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a
cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement. The use of a discriminative
stimulus is effective for cuing one particular response in favor of another (e.g., red light cues the
response of “stop,” while green light cues the response of “go”).
Point 7: Continuous reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement occurs in operant conditioning when the reinforcement occurs as a
consequence of each and every correct response.
Point 8: Four schedules of partial reinforcement
(a) fixed interval - This is the schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must
pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.
(b) fixed ratio - Fixed ratio is when the schedule of reinforcement in which the number of
responses required for reinforcement is always the same.
(c) variable interval - Variable interval is when interval of time after which the organism must
respond in order to receive a reinforcer changes from one time to the next. Sometimes it takes
longer or shorter for the operant outcome to be received.
(d) variable ratio - Variable ratio is when the schedule of reinforcement in which the number of
responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.
Question 11
The Advanced Placement examination is, as you well know, very rigorous and not for the faint of heart.
You’ve spent many months – even years – learning an enormous amount of information that is being
tested during this examination. Discuss how that information is available to you now by following the
information-processing model of memory. You should include thorough descriptions of:
 Encoding
 Storage
 Retrieval
 A discussion of the different types of memory storage
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Encoding
Encoding is the first stage of memory. This memory system gets sensory information (sight, sound,
etc.) into a form that the brain can use. Encoding can be used differently in the different types of
memory. It can involve rehearsing information or elaborating the meaning of information. For the
advanced placement exam if a person continuously practices the information and hears about the
different topics it can be encoded into a memory in the brain for retrieval at a later time.
Point 2: Storage
The next stage in memory is storage. Storage is holding on to the information in the brain for some
period of time. In the storage stage, people can hold onto the information for different lengths of time.
In the case of the AP exam students may store the information just long enough to remember this past
year’s topics and learning to do well on the exam.
Point 3: Retrieval
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Retrieval is the last stage and that is when a person gets the information that they encoded and stored
out of the brain. Retrieval is the last process where a person actually goes into their brain to find the
information that they are looking for.
Point 4: Models of memory storage
The information-processing model of memory focuses on the way we process information and handle
it through 3 different stages of memory.This model assumes that how long a memory will be
remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it was stored. The three types of memory
associated with the information processing model are sensory memory, short term memory, and long
term memory. All information associated with the sensory memory is lost within seconds unless it is
rapidly shuffled to short-term memory. Short term memory holds unrehearsed information for only
15-30 seconds. Long term memory can hold information indefinitely even though sometimes it may
be hard to retrieve. The information that you have learned through the months and years of taking
psychology, if properly rehearsed, can be held in your long term memory. By using encoding,
storage and retrieval a person can improve their memory and recover it in their memory later on, like
when it comes time for the advanced placement exam.
Question 12
One of the main difficulties with memory is how frequently information is (or at least feels) unavailable
to us. Focus on the memory process of retrieval, and provide a thorough review of the process of
forgetting (or what often feels like forgetting). You should include several different theories of why
information is either temporarily or permanently unavailable from memory storage.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: General facts about forgetting
It has been theorized that the length of time a memory is stored depends on the depth at which
information is processed, and there are different processing models that help determine this depth of
processing. The likelihood of forgetting depends on a number of failures that occur in the memory
processing; encoding failure, decay theory, and interference.
Point 2: Encoding failure
Encoding failure is when the person fails to process information into memory. With this idea, the
person really isn’t forgetting but because of the lack of processing it is not stored in their memory.
They may have a false sense of actually “knowing” material, so when they go to retrieve it there will
be a sense of having forgotten it. This is not truly forgetting, however, because the memories were
never adequately encoded (or stored) in the first place.
Point 3: Decay theory
Decay theory is the loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which memory trace (physical
change in the brain caused by memory formation). Without using the memory it will slowly fade from
the brain and cause it to permanently be erased for future use. While this theory, which is also called
the Disuse theory, is one that feels right and makes a lot of sense, it has not been overwhelmingly
supported in research studies.
Point 4: Interference theory
Interference: Proactive interference is a memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information
prevents or interferes with the retrieval of new information. Retroactive interference occurs when
new information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of old information.
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Question 13
Virtually everything we do in a given day is a form of problem-solving. Discuss at least three different
heuristics that people use in an attempt to solve problems, and then compare them to the mechanical
solution (trial-and-error). Finally, discuss several limitations/barriers to effective problem-solving and
given an example of each of these barriers.
Scoring Guidelines
Problem solving involves different ways of behaving and thinking to reach a certain goal. There are many
ways to solve problems.
Point 1: Trial and Error (mechanical solution)
This solution is when a person attempts one way to solve a problem and keeps trying different ways
until one works. It often guarantees that a problem will be solved (assuming that the correct solution
is part of the available solution set) but can be impractical when there is a large number of possible
solutions available.
Point 2: Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific step by step procedure for solving certain types of problems. Unlike the
mechanical solution of trial and error, there are specific procedures and ways that need to be solved in
order to result in a correct solution. Algorithms are very systematic and can be easy to employ,
particularly if a person is trying to solve the same problem repeatedly, but the disadvantage occurs if
the steps are not followed in a precise sequence.
Point 3: Heuristics
Another problem solving method is the use of heuristics. Heuristics are rules of thumb that should be
followed and can be applied to multiple situations. This is different from trial and error because it is
not just a guessing method; there are specific rules that a person follows to best lead them to the
correct answer. Heuristics are educated guesses to a solution that are formulated based on past
experiences, and though they do increase the efficiency of problem-solving, they do not guarantee a
correct answer.
There are also several barriers or limitations to effective problem-solving.
Point 4: Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is when a person only thinks of an object for its most typical or common use and
does not think of creative, ‘outside of the box’ uses for said object. For example, when something is
broken and you need a specific tool to fix it like a screwdriver, a person can use other things like
kitchen knives, a key, or other similar shape items to help screw the item back in place.
Point 5: Confirmation Bias
Confirmation bias is when a person searches for evidence that fits their beliefs and logic while
ignoring other ideas and evidence that disprove their beliefs. For example, when it comes to
remembering specific things like studies involving memory, people who believe in things like ESP
will only remember studies that specifically recall and support the idea that ESP exists versus other
studies which have evidence saying the opposite.
Point 6: The Mental Set
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The mental set refers to a habitual way of solving problems, wherein a past successful problem
solving approach is errantly applied to a different present problem. While using past solutions as a
guide for different problems may be effective, it is frequently the case that “slightly different
problems require slightly different solutions.” Thus if an individual attempts to use the same solution
to a different problem, (s)he may become stuck and unable to move forward.
Question 14
Intelligence is a concept that has eluded a solid definition over time; instead, different theorists have
chosen to define intelligence differently. Compare and contrast three of the major theories of intelligence.
Then discuss the different levels of mental retardation (developmental delay), including the relative IQ
scores that are required for diagnosis of each level and the abilities and limitations that might be seen in
individuals with each level of delay.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Spearman’s G-factor Theory of Intelligence
Charles Spearman’s G Factor theory of intelligence has both a g-factor and s-factor. The g-factor is
the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence, while the s- factor is the ability to
excel in specific areas, or specific intelligence.
Point 2: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence focuses on the belief that there are several kinds of
intelligence and that different people can portray different kinds and aspects of each intelligence. The
nine types of intelligence that Gardner believes a person can portray are verbal/linguistic, musical,
logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and
existentialist. Unlike the other theories which focus on intelligence being about reasoning, solving,
and thinking, Gardner believes everyone can specialize in something that makes them intelligent. He
also posited the idea that different people can have unique combinations of intellectually strength of
weakness. Further, he did not agree with Spearman’s theory that there is one overarching concept of
intelligence (G) that incorporated all of an individual’s cognitive skills.
Point 3: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence says there are three kinds of intelligence;
creative, analytical, and practical. Analytical intelligence refers to ability to break down problems into
components or parts or analysis for further solving. Creative intelligence is ability to deal with new
and different concepts and come up with new ways of solving. Practical intelligence is like “street
smarts” where a person has ability to use information to get along through life. Sternberg’s theory is
different than other theories of intelligence because it focuses on types of intelligence and how
people’s minds work. His theory focuses on different kinds of intelligence that help people solve
problems differently.
Point 4: Mental Retardation
Mental retardation is defined in several ways and affects more than 3% of the population. There are
different levels of mental retardation; mild, moderate, severe, or profound. Being developmentally
delayed is when a person’s behavioral and cognitive skills exist at an earlier developmental stage than
the skills of others who are their same chronological age. It is important for a student to remember
that IQ score is only one piece of the puzzle when making an assessment of mental retardation. An
individual’s adaptive skills must also be assessed before a diagnosis would be made.
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Point 5: Levels of Mental Retardation
(a) Mild: The IQ score for a person who is in the mild level of mental retardation falls
between 55 and 70. They have some adaptive limitations such as only being able to
reach a sixth grade level. They are, however, capable of living independently and being
self-supportive if trained properly. 90% of those with developmental delay fall into the
mild category.
(b) Moderate: Being moderately mental retarded affects 6% of those who are
developmentally delayed. A person at this level has an IQ scores between 40 and 55.
People at this level can reach a 2nd grade level and can only work and live in sheltered
environments with constant supervision.
(c) Severe: Severe retardation affects about 3% of those with a developmental delay, and
would be noted with an IQ score between 25 and 40. People at this level can do basic
self-caring functions but needs supervision constantly.
(d) Profound: Profound mental retardation refers to those with an IQ score of 25 or below.
It affects approximately 1% of those who are developmentally delayed. People in this
category have very limited ability to learn, and have poor language skills and limited selfcare.
Question 15
Language is made up of many different smaller “units.” Provide a thorough definition of each of the
following terms, and then discuss the results of attempts to teach animals how to use language:
 phonemes
 morphemes
 syntax
 pragmatics
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Overall definition of language
Language involves word order, meaning of words, the rules for forming words, the sounds that exist
within languages, the rules for communicating with others, and the meaning of sentences and phrases.
These rules are common amongst all languages around the world, though they may be applied
differently from language to language.
Point 2: Phonemes
Phonemes are the basic units of sound in language, and different languages may involve different
phonemic units or combinations. A common example is the “rr” sound that is common in Spanish,
but may be difficult for English-speaking adults to replicate.
Point 3: Morphemes
Morphemes are the smallest unit of measurement with language, and tend to be common across
different languages.
Point 4: Syntax
Syntax is the systems of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct
sentences. Different languages have different syntactic systems, and this is among the most difficult
part of learning a foreign language. Remembering vocabulary is rote memorization, but applying that
vocabulary to make syntactically correct sentences is the challenge.
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Point 5: Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to the aspects of language that involve the practical ways of communicating, or the
social “niceties” of language.
Point 6: Animals and language
Animals can communicate and use language but it is not always the way we as humans think of
language and communication. Animals use sounds and physical displays to get their message across.
For example, an animal may growl if they are angry or aggressive, or they may do a physical display
like the “dance” of honeybees that tells other bees where the source of pollen is located. Animals’
use of language is more instinctual. They use symbols and gestures but they are controlled by the
animals’ genetic makeup.
There has also been an attempt to teach animals such as chimpanzees to use sign language. The
bonobo chimpanzee, Kanzi, has been the most successful case of learning sign language. This
chimpanzee was trained to touch abstract symbols on a keyboard. Kanzi was not the original subject,
his mother was, but through observational learning he learned more effectively and was more
successful in the training compared to his mother. At last report, Kanzi could understand 150 words
in English through the use of physical cues or symbols. Kanzi has learned to reach up to a 2 ½ year
old child’s level. There have also been studies with dolphins and parrots which also have proven to
be successful in language and communication skills with animals. However, although these animals
have achieved a 3 year old child’s level there is still a debate about whether the animal is learning
language if they are not learning to use syntax too.
Because there is little evidence that animals can break free of rote imitation and create new semantics
within their repertoire of linguistic tools (sign language, supplemental charts or pictures, etc.) most
experts agree that they are not truly using human language in an advanced manner.
Question 16
There are several different theories of how the various components of emotions occur. Referring to those
components as discussed in your textbook, differentiate between the theories of James and Lange, Cannon
and Bard, and Schachter and Singer.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The James-Lange theory of emotions
In this theory, a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal which is then interpreted as an emotion.
James and Lange discussed the idea of the body responding to the arousal through sympathetic
nervous system of “fight or flight.” A useful summary of this theory posits that “we are sad because
we cry,” rather than the oft-believed “we cry because we are sad.”
Point 2: The Cannon-Bard theory of emotions
Cannon and Bard’s theory of emotion says that a stimulus leads to activity in multiple areas of the
brain, which then send simultaneous signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same
time. Cannon and Bard differed from James and Lange because they believed that we don’t feel
specific distinct emotions which mean it’s not enough to be perceived as different emotions leading to
the “fight or flight” idea.
Point 3: The Schacter and Singer theory of emotions
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This theory of emotion says that two things have to occur before emotion can occur: (1) the physical
arousal, and (2) the labeling of the arousal based on cues from the environment. Unlike the other two
theories Schachter and Singer believed that emotion is a two step process and you don’t just feel the
emotion right away, or don’t perceive the emotion at all. You first have to feel it in your body and
then cognitively interpret the stimulus/stimuli, and then the emotion is produced.
Question 17
How can the concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow be integrated into the different levels of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs? Do you see these theories as complementary or contradictory? Support your position.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The Need for Achievement (nAch)
The need for achievement involves the strong desire to succeed in attaining both realistic and
challenging goals.
Point 2: The Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The need for affiliation involves the need for strong social interactions and relationships with others.
Point 3: The Need for Power (nPow)
The need for power involves the need to have control over other people and situations.
Point 4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs involves the need for humans to build their way up in life. They need to
first satisfy all of their basic needs, including physiological needs as well as short- and long-term
safety and security, and build their way up to the ultimate fulfillment of self-actualization and
transcendence. Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy where the person feels that they have
achieved their full potential. Above the self-actualization is transcendence where a person feels
fulfilled in their life they give back and help others achieve self-actualization.
Point 5: The Intersection of nAch, nAff, nPow and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
If a student would say that these theories are complementary here are some points they might address:
a. A person needs to use all these concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow to work through each
part of Maslow’s hierarchy and build up to self-actualization and transcendence.
b. Maslow’s hierarchy deals with the idea of growth and progress in life and by using the
nAch, nAff, and nPow it allows the person to get involve and achieve different things,
affiliate with others, and have power.
If a student would say these theories are contradictory here are some points they might address:
a. By using these concepts of nAch, nAff, and nPow, it may throw the person off the correct
path for the hierarchy if they have too much in one area.
b. By having too much power or achievement although it may feel nice it does not last
forever.
c. If a person has too much of one concept (achievement, affiliation or power) it may at first
lead them up the hierarchy but they cannot successfully stay there for a long period of
time.
Question 18
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
The relationship between stress and physical health is important across many disciplines, only one of
which is psychology. Discuss the relationship between physical health and stress, making sure to involve
each of the following:
 a definition of psychoneuroimmunology
 which medical illnesses have been shown to be related to stress
 personality factors
 culture
 stress response styles
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Psychoneuroimmunology
Psychoneuroimmunology is defined as the study of the effects of psychological factors on the
immune system.
Point 2: Medical Illnesses Related to Stress
Cancer, heart disease, fevers, depression, and HIV/AIDS have all been found to have relationships
with the levels of stress a patient experiences, though this relationship should not be described as
causative in nature.
Point 3: Personality Factors
Type A people are most likely to develop heart disease (possibly via hostility), Type C people are
most likely to develop cancer. Those with Type B personalities seem least likely to develop many of
these illnesses as a direct result of stress.
Point 4: Culture
Culture can influence how people perceive, interpret and respond to stress, which in turn can
influence health outcomes. When people from one culture have to adapt to life in a new culture, they
can experience high levels of stress (acculturative stress). The greatest stress occurs when people
neither maintain contact with their culture of origin nor join the majority culture (i.e., they are
marginalized).
Point 5: Stress Response Styles
Problem-focused coping is when people try to address the source of stress or reduce its impact.
Emotion-focused coping is when people change or control how they react to a stressor.
Point 6: The Relationship Between Stress and Physical Health
Through the study of psychoneuroimmunology, we have learned that stress is associated with a
number of medical illnesses, including cancer and heart disease. Personality factors, culture and
stress response styles are thought to mediate this association. Specifically, people who are overtly
hostile or angry are more likely to develop heart disease, whereas people who direct their anger
inwards are more likely to develop cancer. These findings suggest that the way people manage stress
influences the structure, function and effectiveness of the immune system. Additionally, stress
response styles have been considered as another explanation of the association between stress and
disease. It has been found that people who effectively manage stressful situations are less likely to be
physically ill. It is also important to consider that different stressors require different coping
techniques. Uncontrollable stressors are best managed by emotion-focused coping and controllable
stressors can be best addressed using problem-focused coping techniques.
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Question 19
Discuss different causes of stress in terms of their frequency in our lives, the level of impact that they
have on us, and their potential to cause distress versus eustress. Then compare and contrast Lazarus’s
cognitive appraisal model and Selye’s general adaptation syndrome model.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Causes of Stress and Frequency of Stressors
Catastrophes are relatively infrequent occurrences in our lives, major life events (MLEs) are more
frequent than catastrophes, and daily hassles are most frequently experienced type of stressor.
All of these causes of stress can impact our lives in ways ranging from minor to severe. Major life
changes, such as getting married or having a baby, are most likely to cause eustress, whereas
catastrophes are most likely to be associated with distress. However, the likelihood of a particular
stressor to cause distress is strongly related to how an individual interprets a situation.
Point 2: Lazarus’s Stress Appraisal Model
According to Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal model, how people think about a stressor influences their
reaction. Appraisal is the first step of this model. In this step, people classify a stressor either as a
threat, a challenge or a loss that has already occurred. If a stressor is identified as threatening or
harmful, people have to determine if and how they will deal with the stressor. If they determine that
they are able to manage it, they are able to cope effectively. If they decide they do not have the
resources to manage the stressor, then they feel stress and either try to find new ways to respond, or
continue to feel stress.
Point 3: Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Model
Selye’s general adaptation model outlines the stress response as one that elicits alarm, then resistance
and finally exhaustion. During the alarm stage, the sympathetic nervous system is activated and
physiological stress response mechanisms increase massively. As the stressor continues, we enter the
resistance stage, where stress-responses level off and our bodies get ready to fight the stressor over an
extended time period (hours, days, even weeks). If the stressor is not effectively reduced, our bodies
will eventually become depleted of their defenses and we will develop illnesses. This is when Selye
postulated we have entered the exhaustion stage of the general adaptation syndrome.
Unlike Lazarus, who emphasized cognitive variables, Selye hypothesized that stress is primarily a
physiological process.
Question 20
The developmental theory of Erik Erikson was one of the earliest theories that discussed changes that
occur over the entire lifespan. List and describe, in order, the eight stages of Erikson’s theory, making
sure to include the conflict that occurs at each stage and discuss the outcome of resolving each conflict in
different ways. Your description should also include the appropriate age ranges of each of Erikson’s
stages.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Stage 1 – Trust v. Mistrust
If resolved, child develops a healthy sense of trust in others and expects life to be pleasant.
If not resolved, child learns an unhealthy sense of mistrust which could negative impact relationships
throughout the lifespan.
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Erikson felt that trust or mistrust came from the consistency with which parents responded to the
needs of the infant.
Point 2: Stage 2 – Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt
If resolved, child develops a sense of independence.
If not resolved, child feels dependent on the parents, and may have difficulty separating or one day
individuating from the family of origin.
Erikson felt that autonomy or shame/doubt was a result of parents giving children room to explore
their world or being overly protective and/or restrictive.
Point 3: Stage 3 – Initiative v. Guilt
If resolved, child feels capable and develops self-directed behavior.
If not resolved, the child feels irresponsible, anxious and/or guilty.
Erikson felt that initiative or guilt resulted from the manner in which parents helped their children
overcome obstacles and/or mistakes as they attempt to become more self-efficient and self-proficient.
This is the stage where parents frequently hear, “I can do it,” or “let me try all by myself.”
Point 4: Stage 4 – Industry v. Inferiority
If resolved, child feels competent and develops self-esteem.
If not resolved, child feels inadequate, incompetent, or inferior.
Erikson felt that industry and inferiority where the result of finding (or failing to find) an area of skill
or special ability that allows the child to feel competent. This might include things such as academic
skill, arts, or musical or athletic abilities.
Point 5: Stage 5 – Identity v. Role Confusion
If resolved, adolescent develops a sense of self.
If not resolved, adolescent withdraws from others or immerses themselves in interacting with others.
Erikson felt that adolescence was a time of finding one’s “self,” and thus the adolescent must confront
the very challenging questions that are associated with transitioning from childhood to adulthood.
Point 6: Stage 6 – Intimacy v. Isolation
If resolved, person has satisfying relationships.
If not resolved, person feels isolated and lonely.
Clearly, Erikson felt that early adulthood was a period where we are seeking out a life-partner, and he
felt that a failure to find such a relationship would lead to isolation that could impact the rest of an
individual’s life.
Point 7: Stage 7 – Generativity v. Stagnation
If resolved, adult benefits himself and others by being creative, generative and nurturing.
If not resolved, adult will feel like he hasn’t contributed anything to the world or others.
This is the period where an individual experiencing stagnation might experience what is commonly
referred to as a “mid-life crisis,” which is little more than an immature attempt to suddenly generate
meaning in one’s life. The problem, according to Erikson’s theory, is that generativity is not
something that can be created rapidly; rather, it is the result of a lifelong process.
Point 8: Stage 8 – Integrity v. Despair
If resolved, person will enjoy life and not fear death.
If not resolved, person will fear death.
This is the period where we come to the inevitable end of life, and Erikson felt that it was important
to be able to approach death with a sense of calm and integrity. He felt that we make a life review,
and ask ourselves if we’ve done all that we wanted to do with our lives. If we have, we could die
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calmly and with a sense of peace. If we had not, however, we would lament our death and struggle to
cling to life.
Question 21
The changes that occur between conception and birth set the foundation for virtually everything that an
individual will become after they are born. Discuss the genetic foundations of conception, noting what
happens between fertilization and birth. This should include a discussion of:
 the relative ages and significant events of the three prenatal stages
 a discussion of three major teratogens
 when teratogens are most likely to have a negative impact on a developing child
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Relative Ages and Significant Events of the Three Prenatal Stages
After egg is fertilized, it becomes a one-celled zygote and cells continue to divide as the zygote
moves down the fallopian tube in to the uterus. This happens during the first 2 weeks after
conception and is called the germinal period.
During the embryonic period (from 2 weeks after conception to 8 weeks) all organs start to develop,
including eyes, nose and ears. During his period, the embryo experiences a “critical period,” where
the vulnerability to the effect of teratogens is at its highest.
During the Fetal period (8 weeks after conception to birth) the fetus gets longer and gains weight,
organs finish developing, and movement becomes possible.
Point 2: Major Teratogens/Effects on a Child
Disease
a. Rubella - blindness, deafness, heart defects, brain damage
b. Syphilis - mental retardation, deafness, meningitis
Illicit drugs
a. Marijuana - infant is irritable/easily disturbed
b. Cocaine - low birth weight, respiratory problems, learning problems, infant is
irritable/difficult to soothe
Other drugs
a. Alcohol - fetal alcohol syndrome, learning problems
b. nicotine - miscarriage, low birthweight, mental retardation, learning disabilities
Other substances/situations
a. Mercury - mental retardation, blindness
b. Caffeine - miscarriage, low birthweight
c. Radiation - cancer, physical deformities
Point 3: When Teratogens Exert Their Most Negative Impact
The effect of teratogens on the developing baby differ depending on the timing of the teratogen.
a. Arms/legs - 3.5 to 8 weeks
b. Heart - 2.5 to 6.5 weeks
c. Central nervous system – 2 to 5 weeks
d. Eyes - 3.5 to 8.5 weeks
e. Teeth/mouth - 7 to 12 weeks
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Question 22
Perhaps the single most influential figure in the field of psychology has been Dr. Sigmund Freud. His
theories have extended into many different areas of modern life and thus the impact of his ideas has been
wide-reaching, though in some areas extremely controversial. Provide an in-depth discussion of the major
tenets of Freud’s theory of personality, including the different levels of consciousness, the components of
personality, and how personality develops. Then discuss how the theory of each of the major neoFreudians differed from the work of Freud himself.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: The Levels of Consciousness
a. Unconscious – material that is outside of our awareness, yet continues to exert enormous
influence on our day to day behaviors
b. Preconscious – material of which we are not immediately aware, but could pull into
consciousness with a little effort.
c. Conscious – material that we are aware of at any given moment in time, and that comes into
contact with the “outside world.”
Point 2: The Components of Personality
a. Id - most primitive, totally unconscious, pleasure-seeking, contains all basic biological drives
(pleasure principle)
b. Ego - mostly conscious, tries to fulfill desires of id but only in socially acceptable ways
(reality principle)
c. Superego - contains the conscience, moral center of personality (morality principle)
Point 3: Personality Development
Occurs through the psychosexual stages of personality development, during which libidinal
energy is focused on a particular part of the body (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Freud
theorized that children had to successfully negotiate the challenges of each stage to prevent
fixation so they can move on to the next stage. If fixation occurs during any of the stages, this
will be reflected in the personality. For example, a person who is fixated in the anal stage may be
either anal retentive (very rigid and fussy) or anal expulsive (messy and hostile). A person can
also be orally fixated (very talkative, nail biting, smoking and either too dependent and optimistic
or too aggressive and pessimistic). Fixation in the phallic stage can result in sexually immature
attitudes in adulthood.
Point 4: The Neo-Freudians
a. Carl Jung - Jung believed that the unconscious contained both the personal unconscious, as
Freud believed, and in contrast to Freud, the collective unconscious. The collective
unconscious involves an assortment of myths, beliefs and archetypes that are important to a
person’s particular culture or subgroup.
b. Alfred Adler - Unlike Freud, who believed that sexuality was at the root of personality
development, Adler theorized that the force behind all human endeavors was the desire for
superiority. Related to this idea, he believed that birth order played a strong role in how
people learn to cope with feelings of inferiority and superiority.
c. Karen Horney - Horney conflicted with Freud’s theory of penis envy and proposed a
competing theory of “womb envy.” More importantly, she contended that the main force in
personality development was not sexuality, but a child’s sense of basic anxiety. She
emphasized the role of parents and family by hypothesizing that children who receive love,
affection and security from their parents are able to master their anxiety, whereas children who
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parents are not so nurturing will develop neurotic personalities. She thought that children
displayed difficulties with anxiety through relationships, by either becoming too clingy, too
demanding or too withdrawn.
Question 23
The assessment of personality is a very important area of psychology. Talk about what the assessment of
an individual’s personality can be used for, and then discuss the various methods by which personality
can be assessed. Make sure to discuss the major assessment strategies covered in your textbook, as well as
covering the advantages and drawbacks of each method, where appropriate.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Personality Assessment in General
Personality assessment can be used to help people learn more about themselves, to diagnose
personality disorders, or for research purposes. They may also be applicable in a number of clinical
realms, including (but not limited to) relationship/marital counseling, career/vocational counseling,
and/or to satisfy employment requirements.
Point 2: Interviews
In a clinical interview (which can come in many different formats) a one-on-one conversation is
initiated so that specific questions can be pursued and information can be drawn directly from the
mouth of a client.
Advantages: feels natural, more like a conversation so people might feel more comfortable
Disadvantages: people might lie, distort truth, forget information or give socially acceptable
answers. Halo effect is also common (interviewer can be influenced by first impressions and
fit rest of information in to initial perception of person)
Point 3: Projective Tests
Projective tests involve the presentation of some sort of ambiguous stimulus to a client, with a request
that the client interpret said stimulus according to a specific instruction. Examples might include the
Rorschach test, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Incomplete Sentences Blank.
Advantages: is believed to be able to assess unconscious, hidden emotions
Disadvantages: interpretation is subjective, lack reliability and validity
Point 4: Behavioral Assessments
Behavioral assessments are more of an observational sort of assessment, where the behaviors of a
client are monitored and measured/quantified in some specific way.
Advantages: can observe individual in their natural setting
Disadvantages: observer effect, observer bias, uncontrollable external events
Point 5: Personality Inventories
A personality inventory is a “pencil and paper” type of assessment, where clients sit with a list of
questions or statements and respond in writing. Common examples include the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-II)
Advantages: fairly objective and reliable because of standardization
Disadvantages: people can give socially acceptable, rather than accurate, answers, long
inventories can lead to boredom and cause people to pick answers at random
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Question 24
One of the most disruptive categories of mental illnesses is schizophrenia. This illness, which has the
capacity to interrupt virtually every area of human functioning, can leave an individual so disturbed that
their ability to live life without significant levels of intervention (e.g., psychotherapy, medication, living
assistance) may be completely absent. Discuss the different symptoms of schizophrenia, and distinguish
between the different subtypes of this illness. Finally, discuss why this illness is not the same as “split
personality,” which is formally called dissociative identity disorder.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Symptoms of Schizophrenia
a. Delusions - false beliefs or thoughts that a person continues to hold despite a lack of evidence
to support them, or even in the presence of evidence of their falseness (can include delusions
of persecution, reference, influence, or grandeur, among others)
b. Hallucinations - false sensory perceptions (auditory are the most common, followed by
visual hallucinations. Though uncommon, hallucinations of touch, taste and smell can also
occur)
c. Disturbed speech – the use of neologisms (making up words), clang (an irrational need to
make words rhyme), and word salad (presenting words in a scrambled order), among other
language disturbances
d. Emotional disturbance - flat or inappropriate affect, anhedonia (loss of pleasure)
e. Disorganized or unusual behavior or a loss of self-care/adaptive skills
Point 2: Subtypes of Schizophrenia
a. disorganized - confused speech, hallucinations, inappropriate affect, thinking problems
b. catatonic - disturbed motor behavior, maintains one position for an extended period, or
engages in wild, unpredictable motor behavior (least common type)
c. paranoid - hallucinations and delusions, some thinking problems but not as severe as in
disorganized schizophrenia
Point 3: Distinguishing Schizophrenia from Dissociative Identity Disorder
Schizophrenia is not the same as dissociative identity disorder (DID) because DID is a disorder that
involves the presence of multiple identities or personalities in the same individual, where
schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder that involves disturbances in thinking, behavior, sensory
perceptions and speech. The mistake is often made because schizophrenia involves a “split” from
reality, while DID involves “split personalities.”
Question 25
Anxiety disorders are among the most frequently diagnosed of all psychiatric disorders, and there are
many different types of anxiety disorders. Compare and contrast the following anxiety disorders, making
sure to provide a clear description of what distinguishes each condition:
 Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
 Panic Disorder
 Phobic Disorder (including social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia)
Scoring Guidelines
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Point 1: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
GAD is marked by excessive anxiety or worry about a number of events or activities that lasts for at
least 6 months. Generally, people with GAD are characterological worriers, and can often verbalize
that they recognize that their worry is unwarranted, and yet they continue to experience the anxiety.
Point 2: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
OCD is marked by anxiety-provoking thoughts (obsessions) occur repeatedly and elicit repetitive,
ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) intended to reduce the anxious feelings. A primary feature of
these symptoms is that they feel beyond the control of the sufferer and often will make little or no
sense.
Point 3: Panic Disorder
Panic disorder is marked by frequent panic attacks that interfere with a person’s ability to function.
They differ from a phobia in that they often come on “unannounced,” and are accompanied by
physical symptoms that can mirror a heart attack. Those suffering from a panic attack often report
(afterward) that they felt as if they were going to die or were going insane during the episode.
Point 4: Phobic Disorder (including social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia)
a. social phobia - fear of interacting with others or social situations, avoid situations that could
lead to embarrassment or humiliation
b. agoraphobia - fear of public places where escape would be impossible if something goes
wrong.
c. specific phobia - irrational fear of a particular object or situation, such as snakes or heights.
Once again, a person with a phobia may recognize the excessive and/or irrational nature of their fear
response, yet this will not help them temper or reduce that response. Phobias often lead to avoidance
behaviors as a means of dealing with the problem rather than seeking therapy to help actually reduce
the phobic symptoms.
Question 26
Compare and contrast the following behavioral techniques used to treat phobias, making sure to
thoroughly describe the steps involved in each technique. Also comment on the effectiveness of each
approach:
 Systematic desensitization
 Flooding
 Modeling
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Systematic Desensitization
Client is gradually exposed to feared stimulus. First, therapist teaches client relaxation techniques.
Second, the therapist and client create a list of things related to the feared stimulus, ranking them
from least feared to most feared. (often referred to as a fear hierarchy or a fear ladder). Third, the
therapist exposes the client to the feared stimuli, starting with the least feared. The client uses
relaxation techniques (a response that is incompatible with anxiety) as the more feared stimuli are
introduced. The client works up the list until he reaches the most feared stimulus. Is the most
effective empirically validated treatment for specific phobias.
Point 2: Flooding
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Client exposed to feared stimulus all at once. During exposure, client is prevented from avoiding the
feared stimulus. Through this procedure, the client learns that nothing bad happens when they are
exposed to the feared stimulus. For example, if a client is afraid of public bathrooms, the therapist
might have the client sit on the bathroom floor and prevent her from washing her hands afterwards.
The goal is to “power through” the fear, rather than addressing it in a slow and methodical manner.
Effectiveness - usually see effects after a few sessions. Some have raised questions regarding the
ethics of using flooding to treat a phobia.
Point 3: Modeling
Based on operant conditioning, learning through the observation and imitation of a model. First, a
client watches a model engage in behaviors related to the feared event. For example, a client with a
fear of bridges would watch a model look at a bridge, approach a bridge, stand on a bridge and
eventually cross a bridge. Then, the client would imitate the model. Has been effective for certain
fears, including fear of the dentist, social withdrawal, OCD and specific phobias.
Question 27
What are the different techniques that might be used by a psychoanalytic therapist? What sorts of
behaviors might the analyst might expect to see from a client who is engaged in therapy for any
significant length of time? Finally, what are the pros and cons of this approach to therapy?
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Psychoanalytic Techniques/Client Behaviors
1) Dream analysis – Clients are instructed to remember (and sometimes take notes about) their
dreams, and then share the details of those dreams with the analyst. It is the job of the analyst
to help separate the manifest content (the actual story of the dream) from the latent content
(the hidden, unconscious meaning of the dream) so that the client can understand more
effectively the messages of the unconscious that are contained in these dreams.
2) Free association – Clients are instructed to “lie back” and just start talking, without worrying
about editing, censoring, or controlling what they say. The goal is to have the client freely
emote so that the unconscious can slowly relax its defenses and allow important messages to
be verbalized. The job of the analyst is to (a) make sure to stay out of the client’s way as (s)he
verbalizes, (b) provide gentle encouragement, and (c) recognize when important material is
being verbalized.
3) Analyzing resistance - Freud felt that it was a virtual fact that clients in psychoanalysis
would eventually begin to demonstrate behaviors that interrupted the forward progress of
their own therapy. This would happen as they started to get close to the scary, painful, or
uncomfortable conflicts residing in the unconscious. The only way to overcome resistance
would be to process and discuss it in therapy so that it could be identified and then overcome.
4) Analyzing transference – Freud felt that it was normal for a client to “transfer” important
relationships in his/her life onto the therapist, and when this started to happen it was the
analyst’s job to recognize the transference and resist the urge to respond to it; rather,
processing the transference would serve a positive therapeutic goal.
Point 2: Pros and Cons of Psychoanalytic Therapy
Benefits of these techniques
 might be helpful for people with anxiety, somatoform or dissociative disorders.
Drawbacks to these techniques
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

clients have to be highly verbal and intelligent to actively participate in this kind of
treatment.
not useful with clients who have psychotic disorders or who are unable to communicate
verbally.
Question 28
Relationships between individuals who come from varying racial and ethnic backgrounds are often full of
conflict due to preconceived notions that are held about members of different groups. Provide a thorough
discussion of the concepts of stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Please also discuss several ways
in which these phenomena can be reduced, referring to relevant research in this area. Your answer should
recognize the relevance of attitudes, attitude formation, and the process of attitude change.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Stereotypes
A stereotype is a set of characteristics that people believe is shared by all members of a particular
social category. Stereotypes tend to be more negative than positive but in general are limiting and
causing people to misjudge others.
Point 2: Prejudice
Prejudice is a negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group.
People learn prejudice through the social identity theory which says that a person learns and forms
their identity through social categorization, social identity, and social organization.
Point 3: Discrimination
Discrimination is the tendency to treat people differently because of prejudice toward the social group
or being. While stereotypes and prejudice refer to belief systems or attitudes, discrimination refers to
a behavior or an action. Different types of prejudice and discrimination are results of a social
comparison between the “in group” and the “out group.” The idea of the “in group” includes the
people whom a particular person identifies with, while the “out group” is everyone else in society.
Point 4: Attitudes and Attitude Formation
Attitudes/Formation of Attitudes: An attitude is the tendency to respond positively or negatively to a
person, object, or situation. Attitudes have three components - (a) affect (feelings about the particular
subject), (b) behavior (the way the person acts or does not act), (b) and cognition (the thoughts or
beliefs that center around the subject of the attitude.). Attitudes form for a variety of reasons such as
direct contact with someone, direct instruction of someone (telling you to feel/do certain things),
interactions with others, and observational (vicarious) learning. Persuasion can result from these
interactions and the resources that the person experiences. In relation to stereotypes, the attitudes and
misjudgments of others can quickly change due to the interactions with others and the
thoughts/beliefs that are put in others’ head by the ones starting the “believed stereotype.” Also, with
these ideas of prejudice and discrimination, a person is more likely to change or sway to a particular
side of prejudice or discrimination based on the attitudes surrounding the person and his/her
environment.
Point 5: Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
To reduce these attitudes and negative situations from occurring like prejudice, stereotypes, and
discrimination, a person can do several things. One is the use of an equal status contact, where
different groups of different backgrounds and beliefs are placed in the same situation with no one
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holding any power over the other. This idea has shown to reduce prejudice and discrimination
because it allows personal involvement with people from different groups. Another technique to
avoid discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes is the jigsaw classroom. This is a common
educational technique where a person is only given part of the solution or information needed to solve
the problem and must interact with others from different groups and backgrounds to solve the
problem. By working together with other groups and people a person can learn and it reduces the
prejudice and discrimination from occurring.
Question 29
Social influence is one of the keys to living amidst and amongst others. In fact, even those who live in
relative isolation may be influenced, albeit in a more indirect manner, by others in society. Compare and
contrast the phenomena of conformance, compliance, and obedience, and discuss the most relevant
studies that have demonstrated each concept.
Scoring Guidelines
Point 1: Conformity
Conformity is when a person changes his/her views and behaviors to more closely match the actions
of others. It can occur in response to either real or imagined social pressure; that is, one may only
imagine an external pull to change their actions or believes even if such a pull does not truly exist.
The most relevant study associated with conformity is that of Solomon Asch. Asch did an experiment
with 7 participants all in one room. The experimenter than showed the participants white cards with 3
black lines of varying lengths and than a white card with one black line on it. The participants than
had to figure out which line on the first card was most similar in length to the line on the second card.
In reality, only the next to last participant was a true participant and the other six were confederates
who were instructed to pick the same incorrect line. The results of this experiment showed that
conformity often occurs in response to a variety of social cues. Asch’s work has been lauded for its
relevance to a variety of different areas and students can often provide a variety of examples of how
their own experiences relate directly to this research.
Point 2: Compliance
Compliance is when a person changes his or her behavior because other people are asking for the
change. With compliance there are a few techniques and studies. The foot in the door technique
where you start off with small request and work up to a bigger request. Each time a small request is
asked the person complies. With the door in the face technique, the person begins by asking a huge
request and then asks smaller requests to get what he or she really wanted. A third technique,
lowballing, occurs when one makes an agreement on a particular “transaction,” only to change the
rules of the agreement in his/her own favor at the end of the transaction. This is a technique of
compliance because once a person has committed to a particular deal, it may be quite difficult for
them to pull out of the deal even after rules or conditions have been altered. The main distinction
between compliance and obedience is that compliance occurs in the lack of some external authority.
Point 3: Obedience
Obedience is changing the behavior at direct order of authority. The research study that displays
obedience is Stanley Milgram’s Shock Study. Milgram did a study where he told participants they
would test the effects of punishment on learned behavior. The participants were assigned a “teacher”
role and the “learner” was a confederate. The “teacher” was given instructions to give a shock to the
“learner” who was strapped ton a chair in the next room. The “learner” was asked to memorize words
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and for every wrong answer they were administered a higher shock value. As the “teachers” became
hesitant to participate as the shocks grew higher the experimenter came out in a white lab coat and
said that “they must continue and the experimenter takes full responsibility.” The participants
continued to administer because of the idea that the man in the white lab coat told them to. This study
exhibits the idea of obedience, though it has been widely criticized for being ethically ambiguous at
best, and unethical at worst.
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