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Download Study Sheet for Chemistry and Physics Chemistry Atomic Structure
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Study Sheet for Chemistry and Physics Chemistry Atomic Structure – Protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral) and clustered in the VERY dense center of the atom. Electrons (negative) spin in electron clouds around the nucleus. The negative electrons are electromagnetically attracted to the positive nucleus. Neutrons are the heaviest particle, the protons, and lastly electrons. To find the number of protons and electrons – find the atomic number. The number of neutrons can be found by taking the difference between the atomic number and the atomic mass (rounded to nearest whole number). The atomic mass (measured in amu – atomic mass unit) can be found by adding protons and neutrons together. Matter Atom – smallest unit of an element – can’t be broken down any further Element – cannot be broken down by any chemical means Molecule – combination of 2 or more ATOMS – Example O2 or H2O Compound - combination of 2 or more ELEMENTS (they are chemically combined) – Example H2O or CO2 **All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds** Mixture – combination of substances that are NOT chemically combined – Example: a tossed salad Suspension – mixture where the particles settle out – Example: Italian salad dressing Solution – mixture where a solute is dissolved into a solvent, but can be separated. Example: salt water Solute – the particle that is dissolved in a solvent. Example: salt Solvent – the particles into which a solute is dissolved. Example: The UNIVERSAL SOLVENT – WATER! Colloid – mixture where solid particles separate. Example: Jello or Milk Periodic Table – Vertical columns are called Groups or Families. All of these elements share similar properties and all have the same number of valence electrons (the outermost electrons). Horizontal rows are called Periods. Periods tell you how reactive the element can be or how well an element conducts electricity. The bottom group is called the Lanthanides and Actinides. They are removed for space reasons only. Most ALL of your METALS are to the left of the staircase (except Hydrogen). ALL of you nonmetals are to the right of the staircase. The metalloids are located along the staircase and they have properties of metals and nonmetals. Valence Electrons can be found relatively easy by looking at the Group number. Starting from the far left – that is Group 1 – Group 1 has 1 Valence electron, Group 2 has 2 valence electrons. Groups 3 -12 vary. Groups 13-18 can be found by subtracting 10 from the group number. The magic number is 2 (for the lower number elements) or 8 for the higher elements. The closer to 8 (or 2) the more stable the atom will be. Bonding: 3 types Ionic – the gaining or losing of ELECTRONS. Results is a positive or negatively charged atom. If electrons are LOST, the atom is POSITIVE. If electrons are GAINED, the atom is negative. Normally occurs between a metal and a nonmetal. Covalent – the sharing of electrons. Usually a nonmetal and another nonmetal. Metallic – bonding between 2 or more metals. Can be ionic or covalent. Counting Atoms H2O – has 3 atoms (2 H and 1 O) 2H2O – has 6 atoms (4 H and 2 O) – you simply distribute the Coefficient throughout the compound. Balancing Equations Here is a website for you to practice with! http://richardbowles.tripod.com/chemistry/balance.htm#part1 Laws Law of Conservation of Matter/Mass – in a chemical equation, whatever you started with you must also end with. The law states that matter/mass cannot be created or destroyed. Law of Conservation of Energy – during chemical reactions energy cannot be created or destroyed, so whatever you started with you must also end with. Heat Transfer: 3 types Radiation: transfer in waves – heat you can feel Conduction: transfer by direct contact – touching a hot pot Convection: heat transfer through a fluid (liquid or gas) in a circular pattern – like water boiling in a pot Acids/Bases Acids – sour to taste – pH of 0-6 examples: vinegar, citrus fruits, tomatoes Bases – bitter to taste – typically slippery to feel – pH of 8-14 – examples: bleach, soap, antacids When you combine an acid and a base, they typically form a salt. Charles Law vs. Boyles Law Charles – at a constant pressure…volume increases and temperature decreases – the opposite is true as well. Boyles – at a constant temperature (think BOILING – sounds like BOYLES!) – volume and temperature increase and decrease at the same rate Physics Speed – distance traveled over time (see Formulas and Units section on how to calculate) – example 65km/h Velocity – speed in a SPECIFIC direction – Example 65km/h NW Acceleration – rate at which velocity changes, so any change in speed or direction is considered acceleration. Positive acceleration (faster) and Negative Acceleration/Deceleration (slower). Continuous Acceleration: acceleration in a circle. Constantly changing direction, so constantly acceleration. Force – any push or pull – measured in newtons Net Force – combination of all forces (see formulas for calculation) Balanced force – object at 0 Newtons - typically stationary Unbalanced force – object in motion. This is what causes a balanced force to move! Laws Universal Law of Gravitation – 2 parts: 1. Gravitational force increases as MASS increases 2. Gravitational force increases as DISTANCE decreases Newton’s 1st Law – Object in motion stays in motion, object at rest stays at rest unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced force. Bumper cars are an excellent example. Inertia – an objects resistance to a change in motion Newton’s 2nd Law – acceleration depends on mass and the force applied. Compare pushing an empty grocery cart to pushing a full grocery cart. As MASS increases, the FORCE required to move the mass increases! Newton’s 3rd Law – For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Difficult to see, imagine kicking off of a wall while swimming. Gravity and Motion All objects fall at the same rate due to the force of gravity. ALL objects accelerate toward Earth at a rate of 9.8 m/s2! So for every second that an object falls, simply multiply the time (in seconds) by 9.8 to compute the Velocity of a Falling Object! (see formulas) Terminal Velocity – Speed of a falling object increases, so does air resistance. So air resistance pushes up while the object falls. When these 2 factors balance out – terminal velocity is reached. The object falling is now BALANCED! Free fall –ONLY possible in a vacuum! No forces can act on the object as it falls. Projectile Motion – an object that is thrown will accelerate horizontally and then vertically as gravity takes over Work – is done when force causes an object to move. The force and the movement MUST be in the same direction for it to be considered work. (See formulas) Power – the rate at which energy is transferred (see formulas) Simple Machines – 6 types Lever – a bar that pivots around a fixed point (fulcrum) 1st class lever – fulcrum is in the middle…example: a see saw, or the rowing mechanism on a row boat. 2nd class lever – fulcrum and load (weight) are on the same end…example: wheelbarrow or oldfashioned bottle cap opener 3rd class lever - fulcrum on opposite end from load…example: your elbow or swinging a hammer Pulley – consists of wheels and a rope or cables. Three kinds: Movable: can be pulled from either direction…example: raising a flag on a pole Fixed: pulled from one side…example: pulling a water bucket from a well Block and Tackle: has multiple wheels to assist with lifting heavy objects Wheel and axle - a wheel that pivots on top of a cylinder…example: doorknob, or steering wheel Incline Plane: a straight, slanted surface…example: a wheelchair ramp Wedge – a pair of inclined planes that can move…example: a door stopping wedge or a knife Screw – an incline plane wrapped around a cylinder…example: the lid to a jar or a wood screw Formulas and Units Area: L X W, measured in cm2 Volume of a regular solid: L X W X H, measured in cm3 Density = Mass / Volume, measured in g/ml or g/cm3 (depends what kind of object) Number of Protons or Electrons: Equal to the Atomic Number of the element Number of Neutrons: the difference between the atomic number and the atomic mass rounded to the nearest whole number Atomic Mass: add your protons and neutrons together, measured in amu’s (atomic mass units) Speed: distance / time, measured in m/s Average Speed: total distance/ total time, measured in m/s Resultant Velocity: if the objects are traveling in the same direction - add them; if they are traveling in opposite directions – take the difference. Keep the direction of the highest number, measured in m/s Average Acceleration: final velocity-starting velocity/time it takes to change velocity, measured in m/s2 Net force: add forces together that are moving in the same direction. Take the difference between forces that are moving opposite to one another, measured in Newtons Velocity of a falling object: change in V = g X t (g = gravity and gravity is ALWAYS 9.8m/s), measured in m/s Acceleration = force/mass (Newton’s 2nd Law), measured in m/s2 Force: mass X acceleration, measured in newtons Work: force X distance, measured in joules (sometimes called newton-meters) Power: work / time, measured in watts Wave speed: wavelength X frequency, measured in m/s (Frequency is measured in Hertz – Hz)