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UNIT 11: TANG, SONG & MING DYNASTIES OF CHINA
The first four dynasties to rule China were the Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han. After the Han Dynasty
lost the Mandate of Heaven and collapsed in 220 AD, a period of unrest, civil wars, and
government instability occurred called the Warring States Period. In 618, however, the Tang family
took power and restored order and stability to China. The Song Dynasty followed the Tang
Dynasty. Together, the Tang and Song Dynasties ruled China for over 600 years, from 618 – 1279.
The Tang and Song Dynasties are famous for the many discoveries and inventions made during
their rule, as well as for improving China’s economy and government. Great contributions were
made in the arts, sciences and technology. During these dynasties, gunpowder was invented for
the first time. The invention of gunpowder forever changed the course of world history and the way
wars were fought. Block printing, and later movable-type printing, was also invented. These forms
of printing allowed for the faster production of books and the spread of ideas. The Chinese also
perfected the abacus under the Tang and Song Dynasties. The Abacus was a tool with beads and
wires that was used to perform addition and subtraction for mathematicians and merchants. The
compass was also invented, which allowed seafarers to determine the direction they were sailing.
The delicate pottery known as porcelain was used for artistic and household purposes, and blackink paintings were created on silk paper. Since Chinese art typically depicted scenes from nature,
these were called landscape paintings. Calligraphy, or artistic handwriting, was developed, as well
as the world’s first-ever spinning wheels and mechanical clocks. Temples with curved roof corners
called pagodas were built, and canals were repaired to improve trade and transportation. The
largest canal was the Grand Canal, which connected the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers. Tang and Song
engineers were expert shipbuilders, and the Chinese built the world’s largest navy at the time. In
medicine, the Tang and Song developed vaccines for deadly diseases, such as smallpox. In the
government, the Tang brought back the Civil Service System, which had not been used for
hundreds of years. The Civil Service System brought qualified people into the government again.
The Tang and Song also improved China’s economy by increasing trade with other nations and
issuing the world’s first ever paper money, which made business transactions much easier. China
was so strong under the Tang and Song Dynasties that they were able to force their neighbors to
become tributary states. This meant that China forced its surrounding states, like Korea, Vietnam,
Tibet and Cambodia, to pay China a yearly tax (called a tribute) to avoid being conquered and
colonized by China. Chinese culture was so powerful that it even spread all the way to Japan.
Since Korea is located in-between China and Japan, the process of Chinese culture diffusing to
Japan (by passing through Korea first) was called the “Korean Bridge.” All of these achievements
brought economic growth and cultural advancement to China during the Tang and Song years.
In 1368 the Ming Dynasty took power in China. The Ming Dynasty would rule China for over 250
years. During the Ming Dynasty, an organization called the Board of Censors was created to
eliminate corruption in the government, and the Civil Service System was improved. The Ming is
most famous, however, for an admiral (sea captain) named Zheng He. Zheng He commanded a
massive fleet of over 100 ships. Zheng He sailed across the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia, India,
Arabia, and the east coast of Africa in the early 1400s. Zheng He’s purpose was to demonstrate
China’s supremacy and strength to other world civilizations, and to promote Chinese trade with
these other people. Zheng He convinced other civilizations of China’s superiority, so he was able to
collect tribute (taxes) from them. Chinese merchants now began trading with these new places.
After Zheng He died, however, the Ming Dynasty stopped all voyages of exploration outside of
China because they felt convinced that Chinese culture was superior to all others. Chinese leaders
saw no value in exploring less civilized cultures. The Chinese government banned the building of
large, seafaring ships, and the Ming closed and isolated China off from the world for centuries
UNIT 12: THE MONGOL EMPIRE
The Mongols were a nomadic tribe of herders from central Asia (modern-day Mongolia). In the early
1100s, they began to evolve from herding to fighting. Eventually, the Mongols became a fierce tribe
of warriors that would go down as having built the fastest and largest empire in world history.
Temujin, who lived from 1160 – 1227, was a skilled military general and political leader. Temujin
trained and united the Mongol clans. The Mongols became the most skilled warriors in the world.
Their soldiers trained in combat for years. Temujin used improved tactics and strategies to train
his men. Mongol warriors were skilled horseback riders. The stirrup, which was a foot harness
connected to the horse saddle, allowed the Mongols to fight while on the backs of their horses. The
stirrup changed warfare because it allowed warriors to have better control while on their horses.
The Mongols were also excellent bowmen. They could hit moving targets with their bows while
traveling on horseback at high speeds. Mongol warriors used modern technology to equip their
warriors in battle. They also used fear and intimidation to strike fear into their enemies. Many
armies and cities simply surrendered to them without putting up a fight. People knew that
resisting the Mongols would lead to their entire cities being destroyed, but if they surrendered
peacefully, the Mongols would allow them to keep their culture and civilization (as long as they
paid the Mongols a yearly tax called a ‘tribute’). Very quickly, the Mongols began to conquer their
surrounding neighbors. Temujin changed his title to Genghis Khan, meaning ‘World Emperor,’
because the Mongols conquered so many places (The term for a Mongol emperor was ‘Khan’).
The Mongol Empire (1206 – 1368) would become the largest empire in world history. In less than
50 years, it already became the largest empire the world had ever seen. By 1300, the Mongols had
conquered over 85% of the entire Asian continent. Genghis Khan’s son, Kublai Khan, conquered
China. China had built the Great Wall along its northern border in an attempt to keep the Mongol
invaders out, but the Mongols were too strong. Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in
China. The Yuan Dynasty became the first, and only, Chinese dynasty to be ruled by foreigners.
The Mongols took over the entire government and ruled China for 90 years. Genghis Khan’s other
son, Batu, conquered Russia. The Mongol army that invaded Russia was called the ‘Golden Horde,’
because of the massive size and yellow color of the soldiers’ tents and flags. Russia was controlled
by the Mongols for almost 250 years and was greatly affected by Mongol rule. Russia was cut off
from Western European culture and technology during this time. The Mongols, therefore, isolated
Russia from the technology and science of Western Europe, causing Russia to lag behind the rest
of Europe in these fields. Russians also adopted the idea of strong, centralized government from
the Mongol emperors who ruled them. Mongol emperors ruled with complete authority and power,
so Russia later adopted this model of government. A Russian emperor came to be called the ‘czar’
(Russian for ‘Caesar’). Czars ruled Russia for hundreds of years as emperors (up until 1917!).
Mongol leaders conquered as far as Persia and Eastern Europe. The Mongols conquered India, and
the Mughal Dynasty was established there (Mughal = Mongol). Babur and Akbar were two great
Mughal emperors in India. The Mongols attempted to conquer Japan, but their fleets of ships were
destroyed by storms. Mongol rule over Asia brought a time period called the Pax Mongolia
(‘Mongolian Peace’). Just like the Pax Romana during the ancient Roman Empire of Europe, the
Pax Mongolia was a time of political stability and increased trade. During the Pax Mongolia, the
caravan trade routes across Asia were repaired, such as the Silk Road. As a result of the Pax
Mongolia, trade between Europe & Asia increased. Economic growth & cultural diffusion resulted.
As a result of the Pax Mongolia, travel to Asia became safer. Two men who traveled extensively
during this time were Marco Polo (a Venetian merchant from Italy) and Ibn Battuta (a scholar from
North Africa). Polo and Battuta traveled to India and China and produced written records of what
they saw in these different cultures in journals and diaries. When they returned home, their
accounts of what they saw in Asia sparked huge interest in Asian culture. Europeans now
demanded goods from Asia, so their travels stimulated the expansion of trade. Trade between
Europe and Asia increased dramatically. Historians still value the written records of Polo and
Battuta because they provide primary source accounts of Asian cultures during the 1200s & 1300s.
UNIT 13: EARLY JAPAN AND SHINTO
The development of Japanese culture was most influenced by Japan’s geography. The geography of
Japan shares many similarities with Greece. Like Greece, Japan is an archipelago (chain of
islands) with irregular coastlines. Also like Greece, Japan has limited mineral resources, few
rivers, and isolated valleys surrounded by high mountains (natural barriers). Japan is located in
the Pacific Ocean on the Ring on Fire, an underground fault-line that causes many natural
disasters. This location has caused Japan to suffer earthquakes, typhoons (storms with strong
winds and heavy rain), tsunamis (large tidal waves) and volcanic eruptions for thousands of years.
These geographic features have had a massive impact on Japanese culture. Being an archipelago
has caused Japan to use the sea as a source of food and travel. Since Japan is separated from
mainland Asia (by the Sea of Japan), the islands have served to protect Japan from invasion and
isolate it from foreigners at times. Having limited natural resources, few rivers and high mountain
ranges made agriculture and travel difficult, so Japanese civilization did not develop in river
valleys first. Instead, Japanese villages sprang up on the coastal plains near the sea. Even today,
the majority of Japanese live near the coasts. These natural barriers made political and cultural
unity difficult to achieve for the early Japanese, so many different Japanese cultures and
languages developed at first because different tribes were isolated from each other.
Lastly, living in a region with so many natural disasters caused Japan to respect & fear nature as
a powerful & destructive force. The Japanese developed a nature-based belief system (very similar
to Animism) called Shinto. Shinto evolved from tribal rituals and served as a uniting force for the
Japanese clans. Shinto taught that their were spirits in all living and non-living things (called
‘Kami’), and that nature should be worshipped and respected. Shinto had thousands of gods that
were tied to the natural environment of Japan, making it polytheistic. Shinto had tribal shamans
(priests) that performed rituals and ceremonies honoring the dead (ancestor worship) and praising
animals before they were sacrificed to make food or clothing. Shinto teaches that the universe and
earth are sacred, and that humans must connect with nature through meditation. The ancient
holy texts called the Kojiki and Nikong discuss Shinto beliefs. Large, bright-red gateways called
Toriis were built in front of temples in places of great natural beauty, such as lakes or mountains.
Japanese culture was also highly influenced by China. Chinese culture passed through the Korean
peninsula, which sits in-between China and Japan. Korea served as a bridge for Chinese culture to
diffuse to Japan. During the Tang and Song Dynasties (618 – 1279), many elements of Chinese
culture made their way across Korea to Japan. Calligraphy art, Pagoda temple style, Zen
Buddhism, landscape gardens, and the tea ceremony all came to Japan from China. Zen
Buddhism combines elements of Hinduism, Daoism and Buddhism to form a highly spiritual new
religion that focuses on the human connection with nature and meditation to reach Zen
(enlightenment). Zen gardens & Yoga also originated from Zen Buddhism, and the religion spread
from China to Japan, Korea, Vietnam and Cambodia. In addition to these elements of Chinese
culture, Chinese writing symbols and the Confucian values of male superiority, proper etiquette,
loyalty to family, respect for elders, and value of education had a huge impact on Japanese society.
Since it was difficult to unite the Japanese islands under one government, the system of feudalism
was developed to bring order and stability. Just like Medieval Europe during the Middle Ages,
Japanese feudalism was a decentralized political system in which power and land was distributed
among nobles. The landowning nobles allowed the warriors and peasants to live and work on their
estates of land, where they received protection and stability. In return, the warriors and peasants
had to give their loyalty and service to the noble family, as well as portions of the food and goods
they produced. Feudalism brought order to Japan and ended the civil wars fought by warlords.
In feudal Japan, six social classes emerged. The top class was the emperor. The emperor came
from the Yamato family clan and claimed to be a descendant of the sun god. The emperor held the
highest rank in society, but had no political power; he was just a symbol of royalty and tradition.
The actual ruler was the second class, the Shogun. The Shogun was the top military commander,
whose job it was to train the army and protect Japan. The Shoguns of Japan established family
dynasties called Shogunates, which ruled Japan until 1867. The third class was the landowning
nobles and lords, called the Daimyo. The Daimyo owned large estates of land and demanded
loyalty and taxes from the people that lived on them. The Daimyo were wealthy and powerful.
Fourth was the warrior class, called the Samurai. Just like the knights of Medieval Europe, the
Samurai pledged oaths of loyalty to their military leader. Also like knights (who obeyed the code of
Chivalry), the Samurai followed a warrior code of conduct, called Bushido. The code of Bushido
guided the behavior of Samurai. Bushido demanded Samurai to be extremely loyal, fearless in
battle, and honorable in life. Failure to follow Bushido had strict consequences. The community
shamed a Samurai who dishonored his military leader or family. The only way for a dishonored
Samurai to regain respect and honor was to commit Seppuku, or ritual suicide, using a small
blade to stab themselves in the stomach. Below the Samurai was the fifth class, the peasants
(farmers) and artisans (craftspeople). Peasants and artisans were very poor, but their work was
respected and valued in Japanese society. They lived on the Daimyo’s land and gave them a
portion of their goods in return. The bottom class was the merchants. Although these
businessmen were wealthy, their work was not respected or thought important in Asian cultures.
The most famous Shogunate (shogun dynasty) was the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603 – 1867).
Cultural achievements, such as Haiku poetry and the forms of Kabuki and Nô Theater, were
developed during this dynasty. The Tokugawa Shogunate is most important, however, because it
closed Japan off from all European culture for 250 years. The Japanese distrusted European
culture, especially Christianity. They viewed European culture as inferior (less advanced) to Asian
culture. The Tokugawa Shogun issued the Act of Seclusion in 1636, in the capital of Edo (Tokyo).
Just like the Ming Dynasty of China had banned the building of large oceangoing ships after
Zheng He’s voyages, the Tokugawa Shogun forbid ships to leave Japan. Anyone caught leaving
Japan was executed, and people were rewarded who informed the government where any Japanese
Christians lived. The Tokugawa Shogun closed Japan’s ports so that no European vessels could
enter its harbors. Secluding a country and preventing foreign culture from entering is known as
isolationism. Although the Act of Seclusion protected Japan from foreign influence, the
development of Japanese technology and science fell behind Europe during the 250-year rule of
the Tokugawa Shogunate. No European culture would enter until 1868 (the “Meiji Restoration”)!
UNIT 14: MESO AND SOUTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
While civilizations were developing in Europe, Asia and Africa, human societies were also forming
across the globe in the Americas. The Americas became populated with humans when nomadic
hunter-gatherers migrated over a land bridge formed during the last ice age around 13000 BC.
Most likely, these tribes were hunting herds of bison and mammoths. This land bridge connected
Asia with North America. Archeologists call it the Bering Land Bridge, because today the Bering
Sea lies there and separates Russia from Alaska. Over thousands of years these Paleolithic (old
stone age) nomadic tribes migrated southward and eastward, populating all of the Americas.
Sometime between 8000 and 2000 BC these nomadic tribes had their own Agricultural Revolution,
in which they discovered how to cultivate their own crops. They began to grow American crops,
such as potatoes, squash, beans, tomatoes and carrots. The most important crop, though, was
maize (corn). As these tribes improved their agricultural techniques, they began to settle down in
permanent settlements and became the Native American Indians that we think of today.
The first Native American civilizations (highly complex and organized societies) developed in
Mesoamerica, a region in Central America where Mexico, Guatemala and Belize lie today (Meso =
Middle). Mesoamerican civilizations were Pre-Columbian, meaning they existed before Columbus
and the Europeans arrived in 1492 AD. These Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations
flourished before European contact, meaning they grew wealthy, strong and advanced. The first
great Mesoamerican civilization was the Olmecs. They built a mini-empire along the Gulf Coast of
Mexico from 1400 – 500 BC. Olmec culture and religious rituals had a large influence on the
Mesoamerican civilizations after them, such as the Mayans.
The Mayans built an empire on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico from 300 – 900 AD. The Mayans
lived in city-states (such as Teotihuacán) ruled by chiefs, who were served by wealthy nobles and
military commanders. They are famous for the pictographic (symbol-based) writing they developed,
which was the first system of writing in Mesoamerica. They are also famous for their creative
methods of adapting to their geography. Agriculture was very important to the Mayans, and they
became skilled farmers. The Mayans cleared out the dense rain forests of the Yucatan and built
elevated (raised) fields on platforms for their crops. This helped to irrigate (water) their crops and
drain rainwater more easily. This was an improved method of irrigation. Mayan farmers developed
many types of food from Maize, which boosted population growth. In addition to agriculture,
religion was highly important to the Mayans. Priests were at the top of the social hierarchy
(ranking) in Mayan society. They conducted rituals to their gods and goddesses, which were all tied
to nature. Ceremonies were held to pray for good harvests and victories in battle. The Mayans built
magnificent step-pyramids and temples to conduct their rituals. The Mayans were most advanced,
however, in math and science. They developed an accurate 365-day calendar, medicines for
diseases, a numbering system, and understood the concept of zero before Europeans did.
The next great Mesoamerican civilization was the Aztecs. They were a fierce warrior tribe that built
an empire in Mexico from 1200 – 1521 by conquering their neighbors and forcing them to pay
tribute (taxes). Like the Olmecs and Mayans, religion was highly important to the Aztecs. They
built step-pyramids in honor of their gods and goddesses, which had animal and human features.
Priests conducted human sacrifice ceremonies by removing the heart and offering it to their most
important deity, the Sun God. Aztec engineers were highly advanced. They built their capital city,
Tenochtitlán, on two islands in the center of Lake Texcoco. Engineers filled in sections of the lake
with extra land to expand the city, and connected it to the mainland with stone aqueducts and
highways. They also constructed Chinampas, manmade artificial islands that were earth mats tied
to the bottom of Lake Texcoco. Chinampas provided the Aztecs with extra soil to cultivate crops,
which they needed for their empire’s 30 million people. Chinampas, like the Mayan method of
clearing the rain forest, were a creative farming technique to adapt to one’s environment.
The Incas built the greatest empire in South America, below Mesoamerica. The Inca Empire
stretched over 2,000 miles down the western Pacific coast of South America, in modern-day
countries like Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Bolivia. The geographic barriers of South America, such as
the Andes Mountains and Amazon Rain Forest, led to great cultural diversity within the Inca
Empire. Their empire lasted from 1200 – 1533 by having a strong central government run by an
emperor and using a large military to conquer their neighbors. The emperor ruled from the capital
city of Cuzco, located 10,000 feet up in the Andes. The Incas used a language called Quechua, and
physicians experimented with brain surgery and antiseptics (medicines to reduce infections). The
government used colorful knotted strings called Quipus to keep records and statistics of important
information, such as tax collection and a population census. Quipus allowed the government to
record vital data that it needed and pass it along quickly. Incan priests conducted rituals & animal
sacrifice to their gods. Mummification was occasionally practiced, and an afterlife was believed in.
The Incas are most famous, however, for their creative method of adapting to their harsh physical
environment. Being located in the Andes Mountains made agriculture and transportation very
difficult. In order to grow the crops they needed, the Incas developed a new agricultural technique
called terrace farming. Terrace farming involves cutting flat strips of land (called terraces) into the
sides of mountains. The terraces were used to cultivate crops. Without terrace farming, the Incas
would not have been able to conduct agriculture on the steep mountainsides or feed all of the
people in their massive empire. The Incas also adapted to the Andes by building a 12,000-mile
road network through the mountains. The Incas built roads, highways, footbridges, tunnels and
steps into and through the steep mountains. Just like the ancient Roman Empire, the Incas used
an extensive road network to improve trade and unite their people. Incan armies used the roads to
travel quickly and put down rebellions, and relay runners used them to spread information faster.
UNIT 15: GROWTH OF GLOBAL TRADE & THE BUBONIC PLAGUE
Global trade was in a decline during the beginning of the Middle Ages due to political and
economic instability, but during the Late Middle Ages (1000 – 1400), trade began to increase again
across the world. In Europe, feudalism had brought some social stability. The Crusades also led to
an increase in trade because cultural contact between Europeans and Arabs led to European
demand for Middle Eastern and Asian goods. The greatest demand was for spices from Asia.
Spices, such as pepper, cinnamon, salt, ginger, saffron, and nutmeg, were in huge demand in
Europe because they were used to flavor food, preserve meats, and make medicines and perfumes.
Leftover ships built for the Crusades were now used for trade instead, making the Italian citystates of Venice, Genoa, Florence and Naples extremely wealthy. Italian city-states dominated
trade routes across the Mediterranean and Black Seas; using the old Crusader ships to transport
goods between Europe, Asia and Africa. These Italian city-states were able to control trade because
they were accessible (reachable) by bodies of water. Geographic location near bodies of water was
the single most important reason why certain cities controlled trade and others did not. Geography
caused the Italian city-states (especially Venice) to become major cultural and commercial centers
at this time. Venice monopolized the spice trade between Europe and Asia for seven centuries.
Constantinople (on the Black Sea) also became wealthy through its location near a body of water.
In Northern Europe, a trade alliance (agreement) between towns in Germany was created called the
Hanseatic League. The Hanseatic cities of Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen monopolized trade across
the Baltic and North Seas in northern Europe, just like the Italian city-states controlled trade on
the Mediterranean and Black Seas in southern Europe. Hanseatic merchants navigated trade
ships across the Baltic and North Seas, built lighthouses, arrested pirates, and trained sailors. The
Hanseatic League protected their common interests and made German towns very wealthy. A vast
network of maritime (sea) and overland trade routes connected the towns of Europe. Goods
brought by the Italian city-states and Hanseatic League were transported up the Rhine River and
across the Alps Mountains, where they were exchanged at large trade fairs in the centers of
European cities. Trade fairs led to urbanization, which is the growth of cities. As European cities
grew during the late Middle Ages, a rising middle class of craftsmen and merchants emerged.
Great kingdoms and city-states in Africa began to acquire wealth by controlling trade in gold and
salt on the trans-Saharan trade routes across the Sahara Desert. Goods were transported from the
interior of Africa to the coasts, where they were shipped out to Europe and Asia. African port cities
such as Alexandria, Cairo and Mogadishu, emerged as important centers of trade. In Asia, the time
of political stability and increased trade brought by the Mongol Empire, called the Pax Mongolia
(Mongolian Peace), improved the economies of Asia. The Mongols had repaired and improved the
caravan trade routes connecting Asia with Africa and Europe, especially the Silk Road. The
voyages of Zheng He under the Ming Dynasty increased Chinese contact with civilizations in India,
Arabia and East Africa, leading to trading relationships between these cultures. Chinese port cities
like Macao, Canton and Guangzhou grew wealthy, while Calicut (Calcutta) in India did as well.
One negative effect of the rise of global trade was the Bubonic Plague, a disease carried by fleas
that was transported across Europe, Africa, and Asia from the 1330s – 1350s. The plague first
appeared in Mongolia in the 1330s. From there is spread first to China, then to India and the
Middle East, and finally to North Africa and Europe. The plague spread from the east (Asia) to the
west (Europe) by merchants traveling from Asia. They unknowingly carried the disease on the Silk
Road and maritime trade routes. The plague, called the ‘Black Death’ because of the black lumps
that developed on victims’ bodies, became an epidemic, meaning a fast-spreading disease that
affects many people. Increased interactions between people caused by the rise of global trade
routes caused the plague to spread rapidly. Venetian merchants brought it to Europe when their
ships left plague-infected ports on the Black Sea. Worldwide, 80 million people died in less than 20
years. In addition, global trade was halted for many decades, as merchants were scared to travel or
accept goods from other places. The economy of Venice was destroyed and Serfdom (the oppression
of serfs) was weakened because the surviving serfs now demanded higher wages from their lords.
UNIT 16: THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION & RENAISSANCE
As the late Middle Ages (1000 – 1400) led to an increase in global trade, large cities grew in Europe
(Urbanization) and a new middle class of merchants and craftsmen formed. All of these
developments led to new ways of doing business in Europe called the Commercial Revolution.
During the Commercial Revolution, new ways of business led to the growth of European economies
and many changes in European society. The Commercial Revolution led to the development of a
new economic philosophy called capitalism. Capitalism is the idea that capital (money you invest)
can be used to maximize profits better. Capitalism believes in free trade (no government
interference), private ownership of business, the law of supply and demand, and the protection of
people’s economic self-interest. Since the Commercial Revolution led to capitalism, the systems of
feudalism and manorialism (which had been the ways of life in the Middle Ages) now declined. As
serfs now demanded payment from their lords in money instead of land, a money economy
developed and serfdom (the oppression of serfs) ended. Manorialism ended because now
merchants traveled between cities that were major commercial centers of trade, instead of just
living on a lord’s manor and having a self-sufficient economy based on agriculture.
Many new ways of doing business during the Commercial Revolution led to these societal changes.
Guilds were formed, which were organizations of people in the same trade (such as blacksmiths or
shoemakers) that protected each other’s interests. In guilds, the master (skilled person) trained the
apprentice (inexperienced person), which ensured that all products were made to a high quality
and that prices of goods were regulated (controlled). Banking also developed for the first time,
which allowed people to invest their money in the economy. Partnerships between business
partners formed, and entrepreneurs (people who finance commercial enterprises) invested their
money to make profits. Joint stock companies allowed people to invest in businesses, which used
the people’s money to expand their operations. Shareholders were the people who invested in
companies to make profits. Insurance allowed people to protect their business interests, which
reduced risk. Bills of Exchange were notes used to exchange for money in banks and at trade fairs.
The new ways of business and growth of European economies during the Commercial Revolution
caused some cities to develop as large trading centers. The wealthiest cities were located along
waterways or near large bodies of water, because location near water made trade easier. The citystates of Venice, Florence, Rome, Milan and Genoa became wealthy trading centers because of
their location on the Italian peninsula in the center of the Mediterranean Sea. These Italian citystates had the easiest access to important trade routes across the Mediterranean Sea. Around
1400, the Italian city-states used the wealth they made from monopolizing trade between Europe
and Asia to finance a rebirth of art, science and education in Europe called the Renaissance. The
Renaissance, which marked the end of the Middle Ages and lasted from 1400 – 1550, was a rebirth
of classical Greco-Roman culture in Europe. It was a ‘rebirth’ because this culture had been lost
and unused for 900 years during the Middle Ages. The Renaissance was born in the Italian citystates because they had the wealth from controlling maritime (sea) trade routes to invest in art and
science. The Renaissance eventually spread from Italy to Northern Europe. Northern European
countries such as Germany, the Netherlands and England became centers of the Renaissance too.
A new philosophy known as humanism inspired the Renaissance. The father of Humanism was
Francesco Petrarch. He believed that the accomplishments of “humans” were important and that
people should question authority and examine the world to discover their own truths. These ideas
led to the rise of individualism, which believed in personal happiness, independence and the idea
that society exists for the benefit of the individual. The philosophy of humanism also taught that
classical Greco-Roman culture should be revived and imitated (copied). Humanist scholars
believed that classical culture was the peak of European civilization and that the Middle Ages was
a step backwards for Europe, which is why the Middle Ages came to be called the ‘Dark Ages.’
Humanists encouraged people to study secular (non-religious) subjects, such as the Humanities
(history, science, literature, politics, math). The Humanists’ study of worldly and secular subjects,
as well as their questioning of authority, contradicted the teachings of Roman Catholic Church.
The secular achievements of individuals were now emphasized & classical culture was reexamined.
The Renaissance was a time of great intellectual and artistic creativity. Since humanism valued
Greco-Roman culture, the art styles of the ancient classical civilizations were revived instead of the
Gothic style of art that had been popular during the Middle Ages. Renaissance artists used the
Greco-Roman techniques of perspective, idealized realism, and movement to emphasize the human
form in their sculptures and paintings. Art transformed from glorifying the Catholic Church
(Gothic style) to glorifying the individual (Greco-Roman style).
The most famous Renaissance artists were Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Last Supper),
Michelangelo (David, Sistine Chapel), and Raphael (School of Athens). Da Vinci was also a scientist
and inventor; he studied human anatomy by dissecting corpses and sketched blueprints for flying
machines and underwater boats. Soon the styles of these Renaissance artists spread to Northern
Europe. The Northern Renaissance artists were Albrecht Dürer, Pieter Bruegel, Peter Paul Rubens
and Jan & Hubert van Eyck. The Van Eyck brothers even invented oil paint, and all of these men
imitated the Italian masters before them. The people who financially supported the artists were
called patrons. Without the patrons, artists would not have been able to support their lifestyles.
The most famous patron was Lorenzo de’ Medici, a wealthy banker from Florence. Without Medici,
much of the art created by Da Vinci and Michelangelo would never have been made.
Literature also flourished during the Renaissance and reflected the humanist ideals of the time.
During the Renaissance, authors stopped writing in Latin and began writing in vernaculars.
Vernaculars were the spoken everyday languages of the people, such as German, Spanish,
English, Italian, Dutch, etc. Writing in vernaculars allowed ideas to spread and literacy to increase
because more people could read now. The most famous Renaissance authors were William
Shakespeare (Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet), Dante (Divine Comedy), Miguel Cervantes (Don Quixote),
and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince). Machiavelli’s book The Prince was an important political book
that advised rulers on how to gain and maintain power. In The Prince, Machiavelli advises that a
wise ruler is one who does what is necessary to stay in power. His belief that “the end justifies the
means” meant that leaders may use any method (good or bad) to achieve what is best for the state.
Machiavelli also said that it is better for a ruler to be feared that loved by his people, because fear
motivates people to act and will make them less likely to rebel against the government. These ideas
influenced political leaders, especially dictators, for centuries after Machiavelli wrote them.
UNIT 17: THE PROTESTANT AND COUNTER-REFORMATIONS
From 1500 – 1650, a movement occurred in Western Europe called the Protestant Reformation.
During the Protestant Reformation, Europeans tried to reform (improve) the practices of the
Catholic Church. They protested (acted out against) the practices of the church. One reason the
Protestant Reformation occurred was the philosophy of Humanism, which had been born during
the Renaissance. Humanism taught people to question authority and examine the world to
discover their own truths. This idea contradicted and angered the Church. The main reason why
the Reformation happened is that people were unhappy with the corrupt practices of the Catholic
Church. People thought that the high officials in the Church were corrupt, greedy and dishonest.
Catholics criticized the Church for being too concerned with worldly and secular (non-religious)
affairs, such as gaining power, land and wealth, and not concerned with sacred (religious) affairs.
In 1515, Pope Leo X instituted the practice of selling indulgences. Indulgences were pardons
(forgiveness) for people’s sins that could be bought from Catholic Church, like a check. The Pope
and high Catholic officials in the Church told people that if they bought indulgences, they would
be forgiven of their sins from God and gain instant salvation (eternal life in heaven). People had
been criticizing the corruption and greediness of the Church for many years before this, but the
beginning of indulgences set off a new wave of anger and outrage among Catholics in Europe that
had not been seen before. Now people began to openly challenge and criticize the Catholic Church.
One of the first men to publicly challenge the Church was a German monk named Martin Luther
(1483 – 1546). Martin Luther disagreed with Pope Leo’s practice of selling indulgences and telling
people they could gain salvation by paying money. Luther believed that the Church was too
concerned with money and power, and that they were lying to the people by promising them
salvation for money. On October 31st, 1517, Luther posted his famous 95 Theses on the door of a
cathedral in Wittenberg, Germany. The 95 Theses was a list of 95 reasons why Martin Luther
thought the Catholic Church needed to reform. Luther was most upset by the practice of
indulgences. He wrote that the real path to salvation was to have true faith in God and read the
Bible, not by paying money to corrupt priests. Luther wrote that the Bible is the only source of
religious authority because it contains the actual word of God, and that popes and priests are no
closer to God than the common people. He wanted the Bible to be printed in vernaculars (common
languages) instead of just Latin, so that all people could read and interpret it. Luther’s ideas were
radical because no one had dared to say them in public before. His ideas shook Europe and forced
people to reexamine their faith in God. He is called the father of the Protestant Reformation
because his posting of the 95 Theses in 1517 sparked the protests to reform the Catholic Church.
At a meeting called the Diet of Worms in Germany, Pope Leo and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles
V excommunicated (banned) Martin Luther from the Church. Luther responded by forming his
own Christian sect (church) based on his beliefs, called Lutheranism. Other men were inspired by
Luther and began to challenge the Catholic Church. John Calvin questioned the Catholic Church
by forming the new sect of Calvinism and writing the Institutes of the Christian Religion. In this
book, he criticizes Catholic practices and describes his idea of predestination. Predestination
taught that God has already predetermined who will gain salvation at the beginning of time. Only
God knows the ‘destiny’ of a person’s soul (not a priest or pope), which went against the idea of
indulgences. Calvin’s ideas, such as predestination, spread through Switzerland, Holland & France
Henry VIII was also inspired by Martin Luther to challenge the Catholic Church. Henry VIII was
the king of England, and when the pope refused to grant him a divorce from his first wife, Henry
issued the Act of Supremacy. This law made the king, not the pope, the head of the Church of
England. It also took away all of the Catholic Church’s land in England and gave it to the state.
King Henry’s Act of Supremacy took away all of the pope’s authority in England, and Henry
created his new religion in England called Anglicanism, which did not obey the rules of the pope.
Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Henry VIII all challenged the teachings of the Catholic Church
during the Reformation, which ended Christian unity in Europe by creating new religious sects.
These men’s radical ideas could not be stopped due to the invention of the movable-type printing
press by a German printer named Johannes Gutenberg in 1456. Gutenberg’s printing press was a
turning point in history because it revolutionized the way ideas spread. The teachings of Luther
and Calvin were copies and reprinted millions of times, making the spread of their radical ideas
unstoppable. With Gutenberg’s printing press, more people could read the Bible for themselves &
no longer needed priests to interpret it for them. Literacy rates rose at a much faster pace, and
people learned about new ideas quicker. Without Gutenberg’s printing press in 1456, the ideas of
Luther, Calvin and Henry VIII would not have spread all over Europe like they did. The Church
could no longer just burn the books that it didn’t approve of, because new copies could be made.
The Catholic Church held its’ own reformation called the Catholic Counter-Reformation. During
the Counter Reformation, the Catholic Church wanted to clarify their teachings and clean up the
corruption in their own Church. The meeting where Catholic officials decided to clean up their
corruption was called the Council of Trent (1545 – 1563). At the Council of Trent, Catholic officials
decided to end the sale of indulgences and fight the spread of Protestantism. A Spanish priest
named Ignatius Loyola began the Society of Jesus. These “Jesuits” were missionaries who spread
Catholicism to new places and began the Inquisition, which was a movement that used spies, fake
trials, torture and executions to convince Protestants to become Catholic again. The primary effect
of both the Protestant and Counter Reformations was that religious unity ended in Europe. Before,
all Western Europeans were Catholic, but now dozens of new Christian sects emerged, such as
Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism. In addition, the power of the Roman Catholic Church
declined, and the pope’s authority was repeatedly challenged. As the pope lost power, the power of
European monarchs (kings and queens) was strengthened. Lastly, a series of religious wars (such
as the Thirty Years War) of Catholic versus Protestant nations brought instability to Europe.
UNIT 18: AGE OF EXPLORATION & THE SPANISH EMPIRE
From about 1400 – 1600, the Age of Exploration occurred. During this time, Europeans discovered
new maritime (water) routes to Asia and new lands in the Western Hemisphere. The reason why
Europeans began exploring the world was that they wanted to find water routes to Asia to bypass
the overland routes, which were controlled by Ottoman and Italian merchants. The Ottoman and
Italian traders had a monopoly on the land routes to Asia, so Europeans wanted a way to Asia by
sea. Europeans wanted to find water routes to Asia to profit on the Asian spice markets, since they
were in high demand in Europe. Europeans were dependent on spices from Asia during the 1400s.
The Age of Exploration was able to happen due to new technological advancements in navigation
(direction), naval engineering (boats), and cartography (map-making). New instruments such as the
magnetic compass and astrolabe were invented to aid navigation. The compass used the earth’s
magnetic poles to determine direction, while the astrolabe lined up the heavenly bodies (like the
planets, stars and sun) to determine exact location. These instruments allowed navigators to travel
greater distances without getting lost. The caravel was a great advancement in naval engineering.
The caravel was a new type of ship developed by the Portuguese that could sail against wind
currents, which allowed sailors to go in any direction they wanted. Advances in cartography meant
more accurate maps of the world were produced, so explorers could now sail farther and longer.
Lastly, the rise of powerful nation-states in Europe allowed countries to develop the political
stability and resources needed to fund overseas voyages of exploration. The first two countries to
begin exploring the world were Portugal and Spain, because they were recently united under
strong leaders and had an ideal (perfect) location on the Iberian Peninsula, which allowed them to
sail out across the Atlantic Ocean easily. Muslims called the “Moors” had ruled Portugal and Spain
for over 700 years, but during the Reconquista, Catholic armies reconquered Spain and Portugal
and pushed the Moors off of the Iberian Peninsula. The last Moors were pushed out of Granada,
Spain (the last city they held in Spain) by the King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella in 1492. When
Ferdinand and Isabella had married in 1469, they united their two powerful Catholic kingdoms of
Aragon and Castile. They pushed the last Moors out of Granada and made Spain a powerful and
united Catholic nation. Spain and Portugal now had the political unity needed to begin exploring.
The first explorers were Portuguese; these men were Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias
and Vasco da Gama. They explored the west coast of Africa at first. Vasco da Gama was the first
man to sail around the Cape of Good Hope, the southernmost tip of Africa. Da Gama reached India
after crossing the Cape of Good Hope and brought back ships full of Asian spices. He is the first
man, therefore, to find an all-water route from Europe to Asia. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella
saw the profits Portugal earned from Vasco da Gama and wanted Spain to capitalize on the spice
trade too. They also wanted to send Catholic missionaries to spread Catholicism to new places in
Africa and Asia (and to prevent the spread of Protestantism to those places). Spain funded an
Italian explorer named Cristoforo Colombo, who convinced the king and queen that he could reach
Asia by sailing west straight across the Atlantic Ocean through the Western Hemisphere.
Christopher Columbus did not reach Asia, but in 1492 he landed on a new continent that
Europeans did not know existed. Columbus thought he had reached India so he called the islands
he landed in the West Indies, but Europeans soon realized that the land he discovered was a “New
World.” This New World was North and South America. Columbus’ discovery of the New World in
1492 was a huge turning point in global history. Soon after, many European nations sent
explorers to the New World to build colonies (settlements that send resources to the motherland),
make profits, spread their different religions, and claim this territory for their nations. Columbus’
journey set off a chain of events that permanently changed global history. Portugal and Spain soon
sent more explorers across the Atlantic to claim lands first, and they came into conflict. To settle
their disputes Pope Alexander VI drew the Line of Demarcation down the map, which divided the
New World between Spain and Portugal and prevented these countries from warring. Portugal and
Spain sent explorers to colonize South America, Central America and the Caribbean islands.
Colonialism is the act of ruling over a foreign land and controlling profits from trade & resources.
The Spanish explorers that came to claim the territory in the New World for Spain were called the
Conquistadors. The Conquistadors, or conquerors, claimed land in Latin American for Spain, even
though Native American tribes had lived and settled this land for thousands of lands before
Europeans arrived there. The Conquistador named Hernán Cortés conquered the entire Aztec
Empire in 1521 when his small army captured the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán and killed the last
Aztec Emperor, Montezuma. The conquistador Francisco Pizarro conquered the entire Inca Empire
in the Andes Mountains of South America in 1533 and killed their final emperor, Atahualpa.
Other conquistadors conquered Native American settlements in the Caribbean Islands and Florida.
The Conquistadors had three goals; to claim new territories for Spain, profit on Native Americans’
large amounts of gold and silver, and convert the natives to Catholicism. The conquistadors were
able to conquer the Native Americans, even though they were outnumbered, because they had
superior military technology to the Indians. The Spanish had gunpowder, which was used in
cannons and muskets, as well as body armor and horses. The technology of the Spanish military
led to the destruction of the great Pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas (the Aztecs & Incas).
After conquering the Natives, the Spanish established colonies in Latin America. A colony is a
temporary settlement that sends resources back to the homeland for profits. The Spanish colonies
turned into a great empire in the Americas that stretched from California to South America. The
Spanish king ruled the Spanish Empire (1492 – 1821) overseas and sent missionaries to convert
the natives to Catholicism. A social hierarchy (ranking) soon developed in the Spanish Empire. The
top class was the Peninsulares, who were the Spanish-born Europeans living in the Americas. The
Peninsulares were the landowning nobles that had all of the political and economic power in the
Spanish Empire. Below them were the Creoles, who had Spanish blood but were born in the
colonies. Next came the Mestizos (European/Indian mix) and Mulattoes (European/African mix).
The bottom class was the Africans and Indians that the Spanish used as slaves for their labor.
The only class to have any rights was the Peninsulares, because they were born in Spain and
controlled the land. The Peninsulares began the Encomienda System. The Encomienda System
was a system of legal slavery developed by the Spanish in their colonies. In this system, the
Peninsulares were granted large estates of land called plantations. The Peninsulares were legally
allowed to demand the local Indians to labor on their plantations. The Indians were forced to grow
sugar cane and other crops on the plantations. The Europeans exploited (took advantage of) the
indigenous (native) people of America by forcing the Indians to labor for them as slaves. When
many Indians died from overwork and disease, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to
replace them. Just like feudalism in Medieval Europe, the Encomienda System awarded land to
the elite {very powerful) upper classes, who forced the lower classes to work the land for them.
Lastly, the Age of Exploration led to the birth of European imperialism. Imperialism is the act of a
stronger country dominating the political or economic life of another country to make an economic
profit. During the 1500s and 1600s, many European countries imperialized weaker parts of the
world that they discovered while they were exploring. They did this by conquering the natives and
building colonies to ship resources back to their mother countries. Portugal imperialized parts of
Africa, South America and Southeast Asia, where they hoped to gain a monopoly (complete control)
over the Asian spice trade. The Spanish imperialized Latin America when they built their colonies
their, and they also conquered the Philippines Islands in Southeast Asia. The Philippines was an
archipelago in Southeast Asia that was conquered for Spain by the explorer Ferdinand Magellan.
The French and British both colonized North America and Canada, as well as India. The French
built the New France Colony in North America, which ran from Quebec in Canada all the way
down to Louisiana. The British built their 13 American colonies down the Atlantic coast of North
America, such as New York, Virginia and Georgia. In India, the British East India Company
became the real rulers. They used Indian soldiers, called Sepoys, to rule the people and fight for
them. The Dutch (from the Netherlands) colonized South Africa, where they built the colony of
Cape Town. The Dutch farmers who settled there were called the Boers. The Boers pushed the
native Africans off their land & built large farms, where they forced local Africans to work for them.
UNIT 19: TRIANGULAR TRADE & MERCANTILISM
After Spain built their empire of colonies in Latin America, the British, French, Portuguese and
Dutch also built colonies in North and South America. The birth of these European colonies in the
New World led to a trade network across the Atlantic Ocean. It was called the Triangular Trade
because of the path that the merchant ships took between the continents (from Europe to Africa,
Africa to America, America to Europe). These Atlantic trade routes developed because the colonies
needed manufactured goods and laborers to work on their plantations for their economies to grow.
The first part of the Triangular Trade network was from Europe to Africa. Europeans traded
manufactured goods like textiles (fabrics) and rum for captured slaves from West African
kingdoms. The slaves were then shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, where they
replaced the Native Americans as laborers on the plantations. The slaves were traded for raw
materials from the Americas, such as sugar, tobacco, lumber, grain and cotton. On the final leg of
the trade network, these raw materials were shipped across the Atlantic to Europe, where they
were turned into manufactured goods to be shipped out. This cycle repeated for over 300 years.
The Triangular Trade network across the Atlantic Ocean boosted the economies of European
nations and their American colonies, but African communities faced disaster from the slave trade.
The Atlantic slave trade destroyed the economies of African kingdoms and robbed Africa of 11
million people, many of them the smartest and strongest of their tribes. African economies grew
dependent on the Europeans, which prevented them from growing. Civil wars and political
instability brought African kingdoms into a decline. The 2-6 month journey on which slaves were
brought from Africa to the Americas was the Middle Passage. On the Middle Passage, hundreds of
slaves were crammed on ships where disease, torture, cruelty, rape, and suicide were common.
The rise of the Triangular Trade network led to the Columbian Exchange, which was the global
transfer of new foods, plants, animals, cultures & diseases during the colonization of the Americas
by Europeans. New foods and plants were brought from the New World to Europe for the first time,
such as maize (corn), potatoes, tobacco, peppers, tomatoes, and peanuts. Potatoes and corn in
particular had a huge effect, as the diets of Europeans improved. In the other direction, new
languages (like Spanish, English and French) and religions (like Catholicism and Protestantism)
were brought to the Native Americans in the New World. Other new products brought to the
Americas included rice, wheat, horses, pigs, cattle, chickens and gunpowder. Unfortunately,
Europeans also brought new diseases to the Americas, such as smallpox, measles and malaria.
Since Native Americans had no natural immunity to these diseases, millions of Native Americans
died as epidemics spread through their tribes and decimated (destroyed) Indian populations. The
Columbian Exchange changed the cultures of the New and Old Worlds forever. The transfer of new
foods and products across the Atlantic encouraged economic growth in Europe and the Americas.
The growth of European colonies in the America led to a new economic policy called Mercantilism.
Mercantilism is the philosophy that countries should build colonies to gain wealth by controlling
colonial trade. The main goal of Mercantilism is to use colonies as suppliers of raw materials for
the mother country. The raw materials are then transformed into manufactured goods, which are
shipped back to the colonies and sold for profit. The colonies are used as markets for their mother
countries’ manufactured goods, which boosted the economies of the mother countries. Under
Mercantilism, colonies were only allowed to trade with their mother country. A Spanish colony in
Latin America was only allowed to ship raw materials to Spain, not England or France. Colonial
trade was strictly controlled so that mother countries made sure their colonies only benefited
them. Another key objective of a Mercantilist policy was creating a favorable balance of trade for
the homeland by exporting (shipping out) more products than it imports (ships in). Mercantilism
led to a decline in trade between European countries because they did not want to import goods
from each other; they only wanted to do business with their American colonies. Mercantilism
benefited European economies in the short term, but European economies suffered long-term from
a decline in trade and inflation (high prices). Also, many American colonies resented being strictly
controlled by their mother countries and limited to trade with them only, which caused rebellions.
UNIT 20: AGE OF ABSOLUTISM & ENGLAND’S LIMITED MONARCHY
The time period from the 1500s to 1700s is known as the Age of Absolutism. During this time,
several monarchs (kings and queens) in Europe and Asia sought to have complete power over their
nations. These “absolute monarchs” had total power by centralizing their authority over their
nation-states. Centralizing authority means that these monarchs removed other officials from their
government and took all of the power for themselves. Absolute monarchs took power in India,
Spain, Russia, France and the Ottoman Empire. These kings and queens ruled without the
consent of the people, meaning the people had no power or say in their nations. Since the people
had no power, they were “subjects” of the monarch. The subjects could not question or challenge
the authority of their absolute monarch; there were no democracy or personal liberties in an
absolute monarchy. Thee absolute monarchs ruled as autocrats (rulers with total power). As these
absolute monarchs centralized their authority over their nations, the subjects were forced to obey.
Absolutist monarchs justified their power by claiming the idea of divine right. Divine right (much
like the mandate of heaven used by the dynasties of China) claimed that absolute monarchs got
their authority to rule directly from God. Since these kings and queens claimed that God had given
them the power to rule, no one could challenge their power. Two Catholic officials in France during
the 1600s preached about the idea of divine right. Cardinal Richelieu and Bishop Jacques Bossuet
were Catholic officials who supported the idea of divine right. Under the influence of Richelieu and
Bossuet, France became the strongest absolute monarchy in the world. King Louis XIV (r. 1643 –
1715) ruled as an absolute monarch over France for 72 years. He famously stated, “I am the state,”
which demonstrated the total power he held over France. During Louis XIV’s reign, no government
official could challenge his rule. He was called the “Sun King” to symbolize the absolute power he
held over his subjects. Although King Louis XIV increased France’s power by modernizing the army
and expanding to more territories, his rule also had many negative effects. He attacked the
Huguenots (French protestants) and drove France into bankruptcy by overspending on wars,
parties, fashion and art. He built the magnificent Palace of Versailles 10 miles outside of Paris, but
this put France into heavy debt. Poor economic conditions would later anger the French peasants.
Absolute monarchs took power in other nations as well. In India, Akbar the Great (r. 1556 – 1605)
ruled over the Mughal Dynasty with total authority. He was a fair and tolerant ruler who brought
political stability and religious tolerance to India by treating Muslims and Hindus equally. In the
Middle East, Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520 – 1566) ruled as an absolute monarch over the
Muslim Ottoman Empire. Suleiman became the strongest sultan (ruler) of the Ottoman Empire by
centralizing his authority. Suleiman brought stability and religious toleration; he allowed people of
all religions and cultures to live under the Ottoman Empire. In Spain, Charles V (r. 1519 – 1556)
ruled as the first absolute monarch there. He was also the Holy Roman Emperor of Europe at the
same time. His son, Philip II (r. 1556 – 1598) brought a golden age to Spain by building the
Spanish Empire when Spain colonized Latin America during the 1500s. When Philip sent his navy,
the Spanish Armada, to attack England in 1588, they were badly defeated by the English. The
defeat of the Spanish Armada, overspending on wars, raising taxes & inflation caused by importing
too much gold and silver caused Spain’s golden age to end after Philip’s reign in the late 1500s.
In Russia, the idea of absolutism was influenced by hundred of years of Mongol rule. After the
Mongols were expelled from Russia, absolute monarchs called czars (also ‘tsars’) ruled Russia for
450 years. Ivan the Great (r. 1462 – 1505) was the first czar of Russia. His grandson, Ivan the
Terrible (r. 1533 – 1584) earned his name for his harsh ruling style. Ivan the Terrible used secret,
black-robed police to execute political enemies and burn towns that were disloyal to him. The
greatest czar of Russia was Peter the Great (r. 1682 – 1725). Peter took control over the Russian
nobles and modernized Russia’s army. His greatest achievement, however, was the westernization
of Russia. Westernization means to borrow and copy elements of Western European culture. Peter
the Great sent nobles to Germany and France to copy Western European technology, government,
science and fashion. Peter the Great modernized Russia & brought its’ culture up-to-date with the
countries of Western Europe. He also made St. Petersburg and Moscow great centers of Russian
culture and trade. Peter the Great used westernization to bring Russia into the modern age.
Absolutism took a different course in England. Several monarchs tried to bring absolutist policies
to England, but England’s representative body called Parliament enacted laws to limit the power of
monarchs. The Tudor family ruled England from 1485 – 1603. Tudor monarchs, such as Henry
VIII and Elizabeth I, had good relationships with Parliament because they did not act as absolute
monarchs. Elizabeth I brought a golden age of English culture during her reign from 1558 – 1603.
During the time of Elizabeth, Shakespeare wrote his plays, the English navy defeated the Spanish
Armada, and Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe claiming new territories for England.
Since Elizabeth was the “Virgin Queen,” she had no heirs to take her place when she died. As a
result, the Stuart family replaced the Tudor family as the rulers of England. The Stuarts acted
differently from the Tudors because they tried to act as absolute monarchs. The first Stuart king,
James I, believed in divine right. He justified his belief in divine right with the writings of the
English philosopher Thomas Hobbes. In his famous book Leviathan, Hobbes stated that England
needed a strong absolute monarch to control the country because people were selfish, lazy and
greedy by nature. James used the ideas of Hobbes to back up his claims to power. He then
dissolved Parliament and enacted his own taxes and laws, which angered the English people.
James was also Catholic, which Parliament disliked. Remember that England became a Protestant
nation under Henry VIII when he created the Anglican Church & took control over Catholic lands
in England. Parliament did not want a Catholic monarch again because they feared that the Pope
might gain influence in England again. James I was a strict Catholic, which scared Parliament.
James’ son Charles I took over in 1625. He continued his father’s absolutist policies by arresting
his enemies without charging them with crimes and imposing high taxes on the people. He also
attacked the Puritans, a religious sect that wanted to ‘purify’ the Anglican Church of all Catholic
rituals. Charles dissolved Parliament to prevent it from fighting him. When he needed Parliament’s
money to put down a rebellion in Scotland, a civil war broke out in England between the Cavaliers
(supporters of Charles who wanted an absolute monarchy) and the Roundheads (supporters of
Parliament who wanted a republic). The Roundheads won under the leadership of the Puritan
military general Oliver Cromwell (which is why it the English Civil War is also called the Puritan
Revolution). Cromwell’s Roundheads executed Charles and established a republic in England
called the Commonwealth. During the Commonwealth years (1653 – 1659), Cromwell ruled
alongside Parliament as a harsh Puritan dictator (under the title “Lord Protector of England”).
Cromwell’s death marked the end of the Commonwealth, and soon the Stuart family took over the
throne again. Charles II and James II ruled from 1660 – 1688, but they were also unpopular due
to their Catholic beliefs and absolutist policies. Since Parliament did not want a Catholic absolute
monarch in England, they invited James II’ daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William to rule
England alongside Parliament. William and Mary were Protestants and agreed to rule alongside
Parliament equally. When William and Mary arrived in London in 1688, James II fled and they
quickly seized power. This event is called the Glorious Revolution because no blood was shed or
battles were fought in this peaceful transfer of power. During the Glorious Revolution, William and
Mary were forced to accept the English Bill of Rights, which gave Parliament certain powers over
the monarchy and control over England’s finances. William and Mary also agreed to pass the
Habeas Corpus Act, which made it illegal to jail someone without first charging them with a crime.
Previous laws, such as the Magna Carta from 1215 and the Petition of Right from 1628, had also
restricted the power of English monarchs. The Magna Carta is often called the world’s oldest
constitution because it was the first list of people’s rights to be signed by a king. The Magna Carta,
Petition of Right, Puritan Revolution, Glorious Revolution, English Bill of Rights and Habeas
Corpus Act all led to the creation of a limited monarchy in England. All of these events limited and
controlled the power of English monarchs by giving authority to a lawmaking body, in this case
Parliament. Unlike in France, Russia, Spain and the Ottoman Empire, England reacted negatively
to the idea of absolutism. The English people did not want a ruler with total authority, so these
laws, wars and revolutions were used to prevent absolute monarchs from centralizing their power.
The creation of a limited monarchy in England was important because it established the ideas of
democracy and human rights in Western Europe for the first time since Athens in ancient Greece.