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CHAPTER 6 ETRUSCAN ART & ROMAN ART ANALYSIS PACKET DIRECTIONS: Use the attached worksheets to record information from the reading homework assignments. On the due date, present each assigned analysis worksheet to Mrs. Lawson for a Reading-check grade. Add information from class discussion to the worksheets or attach notes taken in class. Upon completion of the chapter, place analysis packet into the turn-in drawer for a completed-packet grade. Architecture Free-Standing Sculpture Architectural & Relief Sculpture Painting EXAM STRATEGY: *The AP Art History exam places significant emphasis on Roman art, sculpture, & architecture. Most exams contain between four and six multiple-choice questions, a slide-based multiple-choice question or a short essay question. The emphasis on Roman art has been especially strong since 2001. Between 2001 & 2006 each exam included either a slide-based multiple-choice question or a short essay. In addition, Roman works of art can often be used as illustrative examples for one or both of the long essay questions. *From: AP art History, Chmiel & Krieger, Research & Education Association, 2007 Key Concepts Roman engineering Roman engineers—(primarily military) made great advances in construction techniques. The use of concrete and true arches and vaults is a hallmark of Roman construction, and a departure from previous architecture. The variety of architectural structures in this chapter presents the challenge of identifying various types and explaining their uses. Domestic buildings, public buildings, monuments such as triumphal arches, and temples all appear in different forms, and show an evolution over time. Adoption of Greek styles A major theme is the dichotomy between Roman inventiveness and Roman adoption of Greek styles in the arts. The borrowing of Greek ideas can be traced to the Hellenistic period of Alexander the Great and shows up in Virgil's Aenead and Roman myths, as well as in the material arts. The spread of Roman art The Roman conquest and colonization of much of Europe and the Mediterranean world explains the existence of Roman ruins in countries such as France and England and the spread of classical styles throughout what was then the known world. This dissemination of Roman ideas will have an impact on art during the Middle Ages, especially in the Carolingian Renaissance, or the Romanesque period. Art as Propaganda THE ETRUSCANS Origins= little is known - little survived - May have come from Turkey around 800 BCE / Civilization peaked in 6 th century (Greek Archaic period) => Romans take over by 3 rd century / Language not fully deciphered – alphabet derived from Greek-but unique / No literature survives– just short inscriptions = not deciphered / Bilingual inscriptions have been found with Greek literature Rome - Start of Rome’s growing power in central *Italy= mud brick huts / Etruscan & Greek farmers & shepherds => Latins / On the trade route-> traded bronze household utensils for vases (tomb) / Greek Heroes & gods incorporated => reflect Greek influence / Exception -women better educated & more conspicuous Political & Economic organization Individual kingdoms not unified / Stratified social organization-kings, magistrates, aristocratic clans, serfs Wealth from mining = Noted for metal workers & sailors => traded with the Greek & Phoenicians Major cities = Veii / Caere / Tarquinia/ Vulci Towns well planned on grid with 2 main streets creating 4 sections -Intersection = business centers / Most cities were surrounded by walls with gates & towers / buildings added as town grew Art & Architecture Modified Greek plan with a podium- inspired by Greek = copy exactly => assimilated & combined with their own style Architecture-- Axial plan – low-pitched roof, triple-cellae, & portico– Rounded arch = used by Near East / Greek / Egyptians = (Romans were the first to make wide spread use of it)– Barrel vault used as passage way-See arch-vault-dome information on page 226-Double row of voussoirs with horizontal decorative frame => entablature => Decorative design on post & lintel gates Tombs – rock-cut & tumulus types =>Necropolis = “city of the dead” = meant for families-thought of tombs as homes for the dead-Cemetery was laid out like small towns with streets between grave mounds-Partially below ground = round tomb with under ground chamber -Roofed over (corbel vaulting) & covered with dirt & stone Sculpture- dependent upon Greek art for subjects & compositions-behind Greek styles by 25 years / emphasized realism (naturalism) more than idealism / more animated, bodies unarticulated or inaccurately represented, heads too small, faces = Archaic smile, detailing very precise / Purpose = free standing figures (acroteria) / portraits of deceased in bronze & terracotta, canopic urns (cremated ashes) / sarcophagi (terracotta & limestone coffins – marble not used) / terracotta used for reliefs, free-standing figures, urns, and sarcophagi, bronze used for hollow-cast statues (lost-wax process) / modeling techniques preferred over carving, carving & incising used for details, paint applied / most found in temples & tombs, size from small to life-size Painting- Only tomb wall painting survives / colorful, movement & action, subject = genre / dancing & banquet scenes / hunting, fishing & sports / duplication of domestic interior decoration, demons & symbols of death /-Tempera on dry stone walls, dry fresco & true fresco on plaster walls / outlines incised in stone surfaces, then color applied / -Shapes defined by heavy, unmodulated black outlines, filled in with flat color (end of era-shading appeared in imitation of Hellenistic painting) ROMAN BACKGROUND REPUBLICAN PERIOD -The Republic- Julius Caesar to beginning of Octavius c. 509-27 BCE ROME- with expulsion of the Etruscan Kings in 509 BCE the Romans began a gradual development & consolidation of power that would eventually make Rome the center of the world’s largest empire. 509 BCE founded by Romulus “Legend” site on 7 hills society 3 classes of people -patricians = wealthy -plebeian = lower class -slaves – no class created a system of roads & communication spread language & custom through conquest & colonization Acquisition of much wealth => leads to disputes between 2 classes => 100 year war Religion => pantheon of gods – eventually equated to Greek most myths =. Gods not Heroes Conquests / Colonies - during the Republic period, Rome conquered almost all of Italy by 265 BCE -Roman colonies established throughout Italy -Rome linked the colonies and other important sites with roads -Eventually all the free-people of Italy were given the status of Roman citizen and were generally exempt from taxes (money came from conquered territories) Romans established colonies of Roman citizens at strategic locations throughout Italy and other regions (Spain, Africa, Gaul) / colonies were mostly trade centers, with some military purposes Colonies established by treaty/ treaties required that the territory "have the same friends and enemies as the Roman people" and to send troops whenever called upon to do so / remaining customs and laws of the territory were left largely intact Cultural background for Rome =>Adoption of Greek culture / Romans placed great emphasis on practicality, whereas the Greeks sought the underlying Idea (often of intellectual value) / Greek alphabet adopted with some changes in the letters to make them easier to write (Roman style is the most common computer font) / Translated Greek texts into Latin / Invented many Latin words to convey the Greek thoughts / Made the Greek works accessible in both language and lack of complexity / Proposed that we know when we are doing right or wrong and should simply follow our instinct / This view is sometimes called the "macrocosm-microcosm analogy" The republican Romans considered the life-style of the Greeks to be decadent Economics of the Empire = Extremes of wealth & poverty (never before known) resulted from the creation of the empire Initially the land area of Rome was far too small to support the population and so farmers were needed and well respected / almost everyone had a small plot of land which they worked to try and alleviate the food shortage / The acquisition of wheat and other foods became a priority of the state / With the victory over Carthage, major wheat growing areas were obtained and the region around Rome became more profitable as a cattle area Rome became a consumer and had a very poor balance of trade because it produced very little / Trading profits became enormous and many Romans became rich 1. Lavish homes, both in Rome and in summer retreats (such as Pompeii) 2. Elaborate feasts with expensive and exotic drinks and foods (nightingale tongue, mouse roasted in honey) 3. Copies of Grecian art 4. Statues of themselves (look like them rather than the generic look of Greek) Status of women - Because of the absence of men to wars, women gained great economic power, but senate conservatives wrote laws restricting the ability of women to show their economic power or change the traditional view as wife and housekeeper / Women demanded and received a greater ability to divorce and to retain property but this resulted in marriages becoming increasing political or economic and morals generally eroded Slavery - Conquests vastly increased the number and availability of slaves / constituted 40% of the population of Rome / conditions for the slaves were generally very poor and especially so on the cattle farms owned by absentee patricians / fear of a slave uprising Change in the constitutional process into rule by oligarchy / main institutional instrument was the senate / numbered 300 until reforms increased the number to 600 / Senators were mainly landed aristocracy / Senate controlled by 20 families whose families had tremendous networks of influence and from whom the consuls were chosen -Two parties emerged within the senate -Optimates were those who wanted the power of the senate to remain -Populares (demagogues) wanted the power to shift to the other branches of government so that the plebs would be mollified and some who simply saw this path as a way to get power Violence became a common method of eliminating one's foes and imposing one's will on the city Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) Born to a aristocratic family of minor power and influence / Legend from his father and mother indicated that he was descended from the gods (Caesar was taken from an incision in his mother's belly, thus giving the name for Caesarian sections) / Known for his partying ways and sexual appetite Politics -Caesar was appointed as a governor of a minor territory in Spain / became influential in the Populares (the party that favored giving the plebs more power) / The Optimates were under the control of Cicero (the great orator) and Cato the younger and they favored keeping power in the patricians' hands (senate) Caesar by-passed the senate and introduced a bill into the citizens' council that the citizens' council could elect the chief magistrate / Caesar elected to the chief magistrate position / Used the position to gain favor with the people / Becomes Dictator (rule by one man) -Initially appointed for one year and then for life Killed by senatorial opponents on March 15, 44 BC in the senate chamber -stabbed by 20 senators Mark Anthony rallied popular opinion against the conspirators / Caesar deified Octavian accepted senate (Optimates) support as Caesar's successor (he was Caesar's adopted son) but then switched and joined Mark Anthony to defeat the conspirators (at Phillipi) / Mark Anthony & Cleopatra later defeated at Actium by Octavian's fleet Republican Period Art--early (first) strong Etruscan influence / Greek influence came later when Rome conquered Greece / creates combination – GRECO-ROMAN style from Hellenistic Greece /idealism combined with Roman interest in portraits /professional artist – thought of as skilled laborers / Romans conquered Greeks militarily / Greeks conquered Romans artistically & culturally / Imported Greek vases / marble & bronze statuary / Greek artists were put to work copying original artworks / Roman art emphasis & focused on art Great size Practical Realistic (people, places, of the times) Architecture and engineering =Romans saw little difference between architecture & engineering and taught them together / In Roman textbooks, construction was placed alongside studies on hydraulic systems, city planning, and mechanical devices / Modern architecture is largely still dependent on these engineering principles Concrete -Discovery of concrete made the erection of major structures much easier / Roman concrete consisted of powdered lime, volcanic sand, and various types of rubble (small rocks, broken pottery, etc.) which were mixed with water causing a chemical reaction that hardened the mass together / Concrete structures were faced with a stone or marble veneer (for beauty & to avoid excessive moisture absorption) / Allowed erection of the dome => Permitting much wider spans than could be done with stones / Eliminated the cost and difficulty of quarrying stones and transporting them / Romans still used large stones and minimal concrete for many buildings and roads when they were readily available Arches -Originally developed by the Etruscans => replaced the post & lintel construction used by the Greeks & Egyptians / was supported by wooden framework until completed and mortar had dried / Roman Adaptations of the arch: -Back-to-back to form the barrel vault (tunnel) -At right angles to form the cross or groined vault -Around a central point to form the dome Architecture- two major building types begun in Republican Period- Temples & houses / media & techniques = travertine limestone & tufa for foundations & facings of building / concrete discovered/improved & used for walls, vaults, domes / use of arch & vault in combination with concrete led to vast increases in the strength & size of structures Design = axial alignment (symmetrical) Temples = rectangular & circular plans / combine Etruscan & Greek with new Roman innovations: Etruscan elements= emphasis on façade, shallow porches & cellae, podium, steps, & blank sides, emphasis on axial alignment, triple cellae for triad of gods, deep overhanging cornices, no pedimental sculpture Greek elements= basics of rectangular & tholos plans, use of three Greek orders for exterior decoration, engaged columns & pilasters in imitation of Greek peripteral temples Roman elements= concrete cores faced with veneers of brick or stone, use of vaulted or domed ceilings, inscriptions on the pediments, garland & bucrania frieze decoration in stucco, temples generally situated in the center of cities Houses = basic form originated with Etruscans, corridor from street entrance to central atrium, atrium flanked by rectangular sleeping & living rooms / refinements developed by Romans = tablinium (reception hall) opposite the entrance side of the atrium / Peristyle court surrounding garden on the far side of the tablinium, other rooms radiated room the sides of the peristyle court Sculpture- synthesized developments of Greek & Etruscan sculpture & added elements to produce a unique art style / subject (introduced during the Republican Period) => portrait busts of ancestors & rulers / copies & adaptations of Greek originals / wholesale import (& plunder) of Greek originals / media & techniques = marble & bronze / copies of Greek originals often adaptations (faces more realistic, poses more forceful, bracing added for added strength when bronze originals were copied in marble / sculptors had great ability to render textures, surfaces, & details / Portraiture emphasized direct, forceful images / emphasis on realistic portrayal of individuals, not idealization of types of faces or figures / Verism (extreme realism) of portraits developed from ancestor worship & keeping of wax images of the dead / preference for portrait busts (rather than full figure) influenced by Etruscan prototypes (canopic urns) & wax masks Painting- wall paintings (public buildings & houses), panel paintings (houses) / Illusionistic effects established foundations of later western painting / religious & secular (decorative) subject matter (landscapes, cityscapes, genre, still-life) / true fresco on wet plastered walls, tempera on wood panels (small portable), encaustic on wood panels (mummy-portraits) / design= development of 4 styles during the Republic & Early Empire (most information comes from Pompeii): 1st style – Masonry style = imitates costly marble panels using painted stucco relief 2nd style – Architectonic/architectural style = elements (columns, entablatures, balconies) painted illusionistically - replace walls with the illusion of 3-D space/scenes between (view through window)/ shading & modulation of color / sculptural figures & objects 3rd style – Ornate style = elegance & fantasy = depicts fanciful architectural elements with small scenes/ arranged like framed pictures hung on walls 4th style—Intricate style = reveals the most illusionistic & imaginative architectural & landscape vistas / elements from previous styles combined / aerial views included in architectural settings Characteristics: Shading of forms from light to dark, modulation of color within forms, diminution of size from foreground to background, foreshortening of forms & figures, directed lighting (forms cast shadow), atmospheric perspective (bluer & fuzzier in distance), herring bone perspective (multiple view points & vanishing points) THE EMPIRE - The Empire- Caesar Augustus (Octavius)- Pax Romana 27 BCE-476 CE Caesar Augustus (63 BC-14 AD) Octavian winner of the 18 years of civil war following the death of Julius Caesar / given the name Augustus by the Senate - plans to return to the Republic ideals=> Actual Octavian government created important Roman Law / becomes basis of western laws today Added to the existing road system -many still seen today - 53,000 miles of paved road Established an effective postal system and other normal city infrastructure departments (police, fire, trash removal, etc.) Maintained a standard currency system / Single currency over the entire empire which today consists of parts of 40 nations Improved harbors Military- reduced the size of the army but created a permanent, professional army of the best soldiers and a permanent navy =>Territorial expansion /Purpose of expansion was really to consolidate boundaries and ensure the peace Pax Romana ensued because Rome stopped seeking territories but was so strong that no one else could seek them either / 60 million people were largely in peace for more than 400 years Succession => Augustus had no male heir = adopted a nephew, Tiberius, as designated heir / The transition of leadership to Tiberius was smooth = Transitions of leadership for the next 200 years were smooth / This stability occurred in spite of the succession of some inept (crazy) emperors (compare to the presidency of the United States where the office of the Presidency is stable in spite of poor individual presidents) Emperors who succeeded Augustus for 50 years were members of either the Julio or the Claudian families 5 good emperors plus the son of Marcus Aurelius (who was not good) -Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pous, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus = none were power-hungry autocrats (except Commodus) / Maintained the facade of constitutionality but the power in the empire became ever more focused in the emperor as much because of the growth of the administration of such a large empire as it was from their trying to consolidate power Life in the Empire Rome - Population between 500,000 and 700,000 Many beautiful palaces and villas /only the rich had these nice villas and many had country estates (such as Pompeii) / Most poor and even some middle class people lived in ramshackle houses Statues and arches = statues built larger than life size / Generals building triumphal arches to commemorate their great victories for many years Starvation constant problem =agriculture in Italy was not able to support its population and food had to be imported from Egypt and Europe (this was a major reason for the conquering of those territories) / Poor people were given free food Extravagant entertainment / Gladiators (during Trajan's time the gladiator games went on for 123 straight days and over 5,000 humans and 11,000 animals were killed) / Chariot races (red, white, green, blue teams) / Animal massacres Prosperity came through trade and population expansion / Pirates eliminated by the Roman navy / Roads and trading centers important / Manufacturing became very important - Pottery in Italy, then Gaul and Germany Glass making in Italy, then Lyon and Cologne - Bronze and brass goods in Gaul / Trade with China developed through Iran and this was the cause of conquest of Mesopotamia as the last Roman territory to be added to the empire Inflation was rampant =money was cheapened until the amount of silver was almost nothing / People lost faith in the currency and they looked to other currencies being developed within and outside the empire Persecution of minorities (Christians) Romans preoccupied with health, diet and exercise Highly materialistic /People made reputations by spending more than their neighbors /Borrowing to acquire goods was rampant /Bankruptcy tolerated Excited by travel, news and entertainment /Theaters and circuses in every major city / themes were about faraway placed and exotic lifestyles Fascinated by fame and didn't care how it was acquired Success was gauged by power today with little thought to tomorrow Vanity, greed and pride were common and accepted Lost the desire for the values on which the Republic was founded ART OF THE EMPIRE Architecture- public, non-religious structures most innovative (houses & temples continued traditionally) / marble used in addition to travertine & tufa as facing for buildings with concrete cores / structures become larger in all dimensions as Roman arch & vault technology increased / concentrated on the creation & organization of interior space / orders of architecture expanded from 3 to 5 =Tuscan (Greek Doric with a base added to the column, shorter unfluted shaft) & Composite (Ionic & Corinthian combined / orders with arches used decoratively before 125 BCE, structurally with supporting arches after / barrel vaults used to roof rectangular spaces / groin vaults used over square or rectangular spaces where light & circulation of traffic were needed / domes of cast concrete covered circular structures – coffering was used to reinforce the shell of the dome & lessen the weight / rustication used for emphasis of the utilitarian nature (aqueducts & gateways) Types: Apartment houses (insulae)-4 to 6 story, blockish structures for urban housing of lower classes / bridges & aqueducts –relied on arch & concrete construction to span large openings of great height, repetition & modulation of arch sizes enhanced aesthetic quality / amphitheaters (combined 2 theaters) & theaters –made possible by use of barrel & groin vaults, exteriors decorated with Roman orders / baths (thermae) –constructed as recreation centers equipped with baths, swimming pool, exercise rooms, & libraries; barrel & groin vaults, buttressed by thick massive walls enclosed large open spaces / basilicae (government centers) –administrative centers, court housed, & halls of records; rectangular structures with a central nave & two side isles; colonnades separated naves from aisles; semicircular niches (apses) enclosed both ends / triumphal arches –commemorative structures, built with one or three openings & surface decoration in the Roman orders Sculpture- Subjects introduced during the Empire Period: official portraits of rulers –orator (addressing the people), equestrian statue (leader on horseback), leader as pontifex maximus (priests) or as god / relief sculpture of actual or mythological events on triumphal arches, commemorative columns, sarcophagi / media & techniques = marble & bronze, Early Empire Period considered technical peak, quality & workmanship declined during Late Empire Periodworks mass produced, quickly executed, forms & details roughed in gouges & drills, not polished & finished carefully / public images conveyed the “message” of Rome / official portraiture less realistic (naturalistic), more idealistic / Early Empire figures continued Greek proportions-Late Empire figures became shorter, shorthand was used to imply figures & settings (head cluster represented a crowd, city gate represented entire city), reliefs concentrated on real events & images / found in both public & private buildings / most life-size or larger Mosaics used extensively on the floors of public buildings & houses / geometric & floral patterns, figural scenes from mythology, history, & genre / tesserae (flat pieces of stone) laid in bed of cement / very small pieces used during Republic & Early Empire, larger pieces used during Late Empire / early = illusionistic, imitating wall painting, later less detailed & illusionistic / 2 styles = silhouette (only black & white), polychrome (many different colors) Diocletian (r. 284-305 AD) -Divided the empire into eastern and western halves (to better administer it) Ravenna & Constantinople Ruled by decree as few Roman emperors before him /strong general who had support of the army /used strength to impose his will on all governmental agencies / Diocletian called himself Dominus (Lord) to signify that he was even higher than the Cesar Divided the empire into eastern and western halves (to better administer it) -West =>Centered at Rome / Spoke Latin as the dominant language /under control of a trusted friend, Maximian -East =>Centered at Byzantium / spoke Greek as the dominant language / under direct control of Diocletian who was still in charge of all (Dominus) / Appointed a sub-ruler who was called Caesar (located in Antioch) -kept Constantans' son (Constantine) in his court as a hostage to ensure loyalty The combination of Diocletian, Maximian, and the two Caesars was called the tetrarchy Constantine (r. 306-337 AD) – became emperor in the west- made Christianity legal - Edict of Milan (by Constantine and Licinius) Constantine's father (Constantius, one of the tetrarchy) succeeded Maximian as Augustus in the west /Constantine succeeded his father and became one of 7 claimants /fought wars to decide who would emerge as the emperor / Constantine saw a vision of a burning Christian symbol (chi-rho) in the sky on the night before the battle in which he was told that he should fight under that sign (Christianity) / Constantine marked all of his soldiers' shields with chi and rho, the first two letters of Christ's name in Latin ( and ) / Constantine became emperor in the west / Licinius (an ally of Constantine's) became emperor in the east / Constantine and Licinius ruled jointly for about 10 years and then Constantine took over total control through warfare with Licinius Acceptance of Christianity - Edict of Milan (by Constantine and Licinius) gave freedom of worship and equal rights to all people and religions in the empire / Constantine personally favored Christianity / Donated large tracts of land and money to Christianity / Returned Christian property that had been seized during the time of Diocletian /Built a church on top of St. Peter's tomb on Vatican Hill which was one of the principle churches of Christianity until the Renaissance / Sought to unify doctrine by convening the Nicean council (325 AD) Construction of Constantinople => Built on the site of Byzantium-Much easier to defend than Rome / Christianity more widespread in the east than in the west and Constantinople was to be a Christian city Post-Constantine period (r. 337-476 AD) Constantine's sons succeeded him but were inept and fought among themselves / Most of the other succeeding emperors were weak and unable to control their territory / empire was alternately split and united with the relative strength of the emperors / army was mostly deployed along the frontiers and was moved around as the need arose because of the pressure of invasions from outside forces Ravenna Rome was full of crime, decayed morals, etc. / The capital of the west was moved to Ravenna (402-476 AD), a seaport just south of Venice / Persians (Parthians) -Attacked the eastern provinces (in Mesopotamia) / Huns- Terrifying warriors who only wanted to raid and destroy and were feared by both the Romans and the Germans Huns defeated in 451 AD by a combined army of the Romans and the displaced Germans who were under Roman leadership (essentially acting as mercenaries) / Barbarians (illiterate and non-urban) / Crossed the Rhine and Danube and settled on Roman land because of pressure from the Huns (when the Huns first invaded Eastern Europe) / Huns of central Asia moved to the west, eventually reaching Europe's eastern frontier and displacing Germanic tribes toward the west (especially the Goths and the Vandals) -Goths split into two groups -- Ostrogoths (stayed in Eastern Europe for a period) the Visigoths (moved into Dacia, Romania) / Barbarians were allowed to live on Roman land for taxes and army support /The corrupt local Roman officials tried to tax the Visigoths heavily but would not let the barbarians till the land / The Visigoths revolted and began to conquer, as much to live as to gain land / Visigoths (under Alaric) defeated the Roman army in a series of battles along the Danube region (Dacia / When Theodosius died (395), the Visigoths expanded beyond their small territory and moved into western Italy, becoming the first to sack Rome (410 AD) Vandals -Reached Rome in 455 AD and sacked it with even greater thoroughness than the Visigoths / Roman emperor of the west remained in Ravenna and was nominally still in control of the west / Vandals maintained control of the city of Rome until 533 when they were defeated by the Byzantines in both Italy and Africa Ostrogoth -Moved slowly toward Italy after the Huns lost power and became mercenaries of the Romans /Odoacer was proclaimed emperor by his troops but was never recognized by the emperor of the east /This was the effective end of the Western Roman Empire being ruled by Romans (date: 476 A.D.) Ravenna churches built /Mosaics (gold leaf and other colors to glass and then covering with another layer of glass) became a principle art form in Ravenna /The play of light off the small pieces gives a shimmering effect /Ended state subsidies to the church yet protected the church's lands and methods of worship /Protected the Jews when they were attacked by Christian zealots in Italy The Byzantine emperor (Justinian) used this occurrence as an excuse to invade Ravenna / the eastern part of the Roman Empire was not conquered. It survived for another 1000 years as the Byzantine Empire. /The fall of the Roman empire traditionally marks the end of the period of antiquity Key Words and Terms apse rotunda trompe l'oeil lintels round arch keystone triglyph pier springing bay drum dado circus veneered cella forum catacomb molding trophy cartouche undercut still life clerestory coffers buttress diptych barrel vault atrium voussoir pilaster podium extrados arcade dome plinth basilica concrete axial pseudo-peripteral swags apotheosis attic story menorah filigree hypogeum verism acanthus intuitive perspective drillwork tondo hypostyle hall broken pediment entablature votive buttressing engaged agora cubicula meander cameo triumphal arch egg-and-dart atmospheric perspective oculus nave jamb roundel prostyle centering spandrel cross vault Tuscan order sarcophagus aqueduct tholos peripteral composite order cornice stadium exedrae imposts groin vault Directions: Read assigned pages. Collect data on the following art & architecture. Note: Check the beginning of the chapter & period headings for historical & cultural information. Complete each section with relevant information for full credit. ARCHITECTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 1 CRITERIA: Porta Augusta, pgs 223-233 (Architect if Known) Sanctuary of Fortuna, pg 233-236 Early Republican Period, c 100 BCE, Palestrina Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Etruscan, 2nd Century BCE, Perugia Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location –Geographical Political & Economic organization / Individual kingdoms not unified / Stratified social organization-kings, magistrates, aristocratic clans, serfs/Wealth from mining = Noted metal workers & sailors => traded with the Greek & Phoenicians / Major cities = Veii / Caere / Tarquinia/ Vulci / Towns well planned on grid with 2 main streets creating 4 sections Intersection was business centers / Most cities were surrounded by walls with gates & towers / Buildings were added as town grew Stone - barrel vault, decorative post & lintel design/ Patrons of the Roman Republic’s great temples & sanctuaries were in almost all cases men from old & distinguished families / often victorious generals who used the spoils of war to finance public works Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience City gate Sanctuary dedicated to the goddess of fortune & chance Formalism (visual): Orientation / Form / Plan Principles & Elements of Design Exterior One of a few surviving examples of Etruscan architecture /Features – rounded arch = used by Near East / Greek / Egyptians = Romans were the first to make wide spread use of it /Feature – barrel vault used as passage way Incorporates many new features that will be come typical in Rome - Most innovative use of concrete during the Republican period- Large scale – spread out over several terraces leading up to a tholos at the peak of an ascending triangle reflects Romans love for Greek design/ Converted the hill itself into architecture – Greek practice was to crown a hill/ axial plan Decorative design on post & lintel gate/ Double row of voussoirs with horizontal decorative frame => entablature Contrast of straight vs. curved / columns vs. arcades/ Multi-unit / multilevel architecture = very complicated/ Concrete vaults lined with fist-sized stones Influenced by Hellenistic architecture Included ½ circle niches= exedrae Contains small Etruscan style temple Relationship to site= geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process / Terms -Decoration -Axis Interior Organization / Scale/Size/Proportion Space / Light Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality of -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Artistic training -Key Concepts Temple dedicated to Portunus, pg 238 Republican Period Concrete—arch / barrel vault make it possible to span large spaces Concrete covered with stucco & veneer of brick or stone Combines Etruscan & Greek elements – high podium accessible only at the front – freestanding Ionic columns support Ionic frieze & pediment – Roman added engaged half-columns on sides & back of cella (no support) – solid wall (concrete) Other relevant structures and/or criteria Tomb, pg 229-231 Mason Carree, pg 242 ARCHITECTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 2 CRITERIA: (Architect if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location House of the Silver Wedding, Atrium, pg 238-241 Republican Period Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-Political-Economic Patron-Architect (relationship) Location –Geographical Relationship to site= geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process / Terms Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Orientation / Form / Plan Principles & Elements of Design Exterior Pont du Gard, pg 241-243 Republican Period, Late 1st Century BCE, Nines, France Example of Roman rapid expansion=>focus on expansion abroad & the consolidation of imperial power in the Western world / Roman City Life – including Pompeii: Temples & government building surrounded a main square – forum / Paved streets lined with shops & houses /Enclosed by a protective wall with fortified gates /Business was conducted in its basilicas & pavilions /Religious duties performed in its temples /Speeches presented in its open square / succession of wars= developed Roman military characteristics- disciplined valor, tenacity, practicality, obedience to authority, obedience to authority stone/ concrete/constructed of precisely cut stones from a nearby quarry Conquests / Colonies - during the Republic period, Rome conquered almost all of Italy by 265 BCE-Roman colonies established throughout Italy -Rome linked the colonies and other important sites with roads -Eventually all the free-people of Italy were given the status of Roman citizen and were generally exempt from taxes (money came from conquered territories) aqueduct provided 100 gallons of water a day for every person in Nimes Theater – isolated audience & actors in an architectural environment For recreation people went to the baths or the events in the amphitheater Discovery of concrete revolutionized Roman architecture made possible by use of barrel & groin vaults, exteriors decorated with Roman orders 900 foot span/ 180 feet above the Gard river /consists of three arcades (walls with a series of regularly spaced arched openings) stacked on top of each other / example of the simplified use of the arch as a structural element / large stone piers (square or rectangular support posts) support a road bed 20 feet high / the arches of the second arcade span the same distance as those of the base but are narrower than the first and set on one side of the roadbed / the third arcade (narrowest & shortest) has 3 for every 1 of the second arcade / purely utilitarian structure – left undecorated / the blocks inserted to support scaffolding during construction were left to provide easy access for repairs /conveys the Roman since of balance, proportion, rhythmic harmony, & integration into its natural setting -Decoration -Axis Interior Organization / Scale/Size/Proportion Space / Light Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality of -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Peristyle garden, House of the Vettii, Pompeii, pgs 240-1 Amphitheater Pompeii, not in book Republican Period amphitheaters (combined 2 theatersconcrete enabled architects to build arches Set in hillside – plain masonry of wall disguised with columns & pediments Surroundings are part of performance setting ARCHITECTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 3 CRITERIA: Imperial Forum, pgs 260-263 Markets of Trajan, pg 263 Colosseum, pg 252-255 (Architect if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Early Empire Early Empire Early Empire Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-Political-Economic Patron-Architect (relationship) Location –Geographical Relationship to site= geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process / Terms Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Orientation / Form / Plan Principles & Elements of Design Exterior -Decoration -Axis Interior Organization / Scale/Size/Proportion Space / Light Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality of -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Concrete & arches ARCHITECTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 4 CRITERIA: Pantheon, pg 263-266 (Architect if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-Political-Economic Patron-Architect (relationship) Location –Geographical Relationship to site= geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process / Terms Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Orientation / Form / Plan Principles & Elements of Design Exterior -Decoration -Axis Interior Organization / Scale/Size/Proportion Space / Light Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality of -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Early Empire Palace of Diocletian, Peristyle court, pg 274-276 Late Empire Basilica of Maxentius & Constantine, pg 280-282 Late Empire RELIEF & ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 5 CRITERIA: (Artist if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date /Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-Political-Economic Patron-Architect (relationship) Location –Geographical Ara Pacis Auguste & Imperial Procession, Allegory, pgs 245-247 Early Empire Arch of Titus, pgs253-255 Early Empire Column of Trajan, Romans Crossing the Danube & Building a Fort, pgs 260- 263 Early Empire Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process/ Terms Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Principles & Elements of Design Form / Shape– geometric, organic / open, closed / Mass / Volume / Texture- smooth, rough / Color / Value / Space – positive, negative Movement / Gesture / Balance / Type – free-standing / relief / Orientation / Stance / Presentation Proportion / Scale / Relationship to viewer / space Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural-anatomical correctness / facial expression or Non-objective elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences / Manner of expression / Dominant forms, motifs, symbols - Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Arch of Trajan, c 114-117 C.E. Spoils from the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem RELIEF & ARCHITECTURAL SCULPTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 6 CRITERIA: (Artist if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date /Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-Political-Economic Patron-Architect (relationship) Location –Geographical Battle between the Romans & the Barbarians, pg 278 High Empire, 250 CE, Rome Arch of Constantine, pgs 282-283 Late Empire changing funerary practices-shift from cremation to burial-led to growing demand for funerary sculpture Priestess of Bacchus(?), pgs 284-285 Late Empire, 390-401 CE Constantine baptized into Christian religion on deathbed 337 BCE / period of civil war followed / by end of 4th century Christianity had become the official religion of the empire / non-Christians had become targets of persecution / many people resisted the shift & tried to revive classical culture ivory / diptych / carving Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process/ Terms marble / workshops produced thousands of sarcophagi with carved reliefs Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience relief from the tomb of the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus/ wealthy Roman / funerary-to be placed in Mausoleum Roman patricians Quintus Aurelius Symmacus / may commemorate a marriage between families Formalism (visual): Principles & Elements of Design sarcophagi were popular / dense mass of intertwined bodies / central horseman stands out = one of Trajan’s sons / Subject = battle between Romans and Barbarians in a style related to the Hellenistic period - no attempt to depict depth of space- diptych-2 panels / careful rendering of drapery / ivory carvers extremely skillful-commissioned by pagans & Christians shows commander addressing his troops with an outstretched arm from his horse-in the midst of the battle/ compositions for sarcophagi range in complexity from simple geometric or floral ornaments to scenes involving large numbers of figures /some subjects included events from the life of the deceased / some showed dramatic scenes from Greek mythology & drama classical subject matter remained attractive to artist & patrons / stories of the ancient gods & heroes entered the secular realm as decorative elements Form / Shape– geometric, organic / open, closed / Mass / Volume / Texture- smooth, rough / Color / Value / Space – positive, negative Movement / Gesture / Balance / Type – free-standing / relief / Orientation / Stance / Presentation Proportion / Scale / Relationship to viewer / space Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural-anatomical correctness / facial expression or Non-objective elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences / Manner of expression / Dominant forms, motifs, symbols - Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Constantine Speaking to the People FREESTANDING SCULPTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 7 CRITERIA: Apollo, from Veil, pg 223-228 Etruscan Sarcophagus from Cerveteri, pgs 229-231 Etruscan, c. 520 BCE, Origins=little known - little survived / Civilization peaked in 6th century => Greek Archaic period / Romans take over by 3rd century / Language not fully deciphered – alphabet derived from Greek-but unique / Greek Heroes & gods incorporated => reflect Greek influence / Exception women were better educated & more conspicuous dependent upon Greek art for subjects & compositions-behind Greek styles by 25 years / portraits of deceased in bronze & terracotta, from canopic urns (cremated ashes) / sarcophagi (terracotta & limestone coffins – marble not used) / most found in temples & tombs, size from small to life-size Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process/ Terms terra-cotta terra-cotta, length 6'7"/Terra-cotta = once painted/Created in four sections & then joined modeling techniques preferred over carving, carving & incising used for details, paint applied Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Purpose = free standing figures (acroteria) on temples Portrait coffin- evolved from cinerary jars= actual people Formalism (visual): Principles & Elements of Design emphasized realism (naturalism) more than idealism / more animated, bodies unarticulated or inaccurately represented, heads too small, faces = Archaic smile, detailing very precise Sculpture – Archaic = sarcophagi – most famous/ Pose = Reclining on a banquet couch/ Men & women dining together = Etruscan – only men in Greek/ actual hair & clothing styles /Archaic smile – imitated by Romans /Animated => movement = alive = Etruscan – Egypt very still Archaic Style => Greek Kouros figures / Geometric = not naturalistic / Life size/ Some what active pose = forward motion => purposeful movement characteristic / Robe has knife pleats Gesturing important characteristic of Roman art (even today) / Greek – closed contours & calm demeanor/ Sculptor rendered the upper & lower parts of the figure differently emphasis on the upper part => Greek conventions of proportion and balance / vibrant faces & gesturing arms -lower – legs summarily modeled / transition to the torso at the waist is unnatural (Artist if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date /Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location – Geographical Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Form / Shape– geometric, organic / open, closed / Mass / Volume / Texture- smooth, rough / Color / Value / Space – positive, negative Movement / Gesture / Balance / Type – freestanding / relief / Orientation / Stance / Presentation Proportion / Scale / Relationship to viewer / space Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural-anatomical correctness / facial expression or Non-objective elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences / Manner of expression / Dominant forms, motifs, symbols - Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Aulus Metellus, pg 243-244 Republican Period Patrician w/ two Portrait heads FREE STANDING SCULPTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 8 CRITERIA: (Artist if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date /Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location – Geographical Augustus of Prima Porta, pg 243-247 Early Empire Young Flavian Woman, pg 255-256 Early Empire Caracalla, pg 276-278 Late Empire, 3rd century CE, The Severan emperors - ruled the empire before the rise of Diocletian Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process/ Terms Marble, height 14 1/2" / drill & chisel work Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Portrait bust Formalism (visual): Principles & Elements of Design sculptor enhanced the intensity of the emperor's expression by producing strong contrasts of light & dark / eyes drilled & engraved to catch the light Form / Shape– geometric, organic / open, closed / Mass / Volume / Texture- smooth, rough / Color / Value / Space – positive, negative Movement / Gesture / Balance / Type – freestanding / relief / Orientation / Stance / Presentation Proportion / Scale / Relationship to viewer / space Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural-anatomical correctness / facial expression or Non-objective elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences / Manner of expression / Dominant forms, motifs, symbols - Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Direct forceful images, emphasis on realistic portrayal of individuals in extreme realism- verism Convey message of Rome- scowling expression = hard as nails military man FREE STANDING SCULPTURE ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 9 CRITERIA: Marcus Aurelius, pg 270-272 (Artist if Known) Artistic Time Period / Date /Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location – Geographical Early Empire Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Building Techniques / Process/ Terms Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Principles & Elements of Design Form / Shape– geometric, organic / open, closed / Mass / Volume / Texture- smooth, rough / Color / Value / Space – positive, negative Movement / Gesture / Balance / Type – freestanding / relief / Orientation / Stance / Presentation Proportion / Scale / Relationship to viewer / space Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural-anatomical correctness / facial expression or Non-objective elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences / Manner of expression / Dominant forms, motifs, symbols - Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Commodus as Hercules, pgs The Tetrarchs, pg 276-278 Late Empire Constantine the Great, pg 280284 Late Empire 271-2 PAINTING ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 10 CRITERIA: Artist (If known) Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location –Geographical Musicians & Dancers, Pgs 229-231 Etruscan , c. 480-470 BCE, Tomb of the Lionesses, Tarquinta Origins little is known - little survived / May have come from Turkey around 800 BCE / Civilization peaked in 6th century => Greek Archaic period / Romans take over by 3rd century Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Fresco, wall painting Materials / Construction / Techniques / Terms Narrative Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Dancers – from tomb of the Lionesses, Tarquinta = fresco / Painting—seen in tombs – cemeteries - afterlife Formalism (visual): Elaborate underground tomb/ brightly colored-scenes of feasting, dancing, musical performances, athletic contests, hunting & fishing/ convey energy & humor Pictorial SpaceComposition / Organization-Principles & Elements of Design Color / Value / Space – positive, negative / / figureground / depth / color / movement / line – shape / balance / unity / view point / proportion- size/scale Movement / Gesture / Balance Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural -anatomical correctness / facial expression Non-objective – elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria pictorial conventions => women- light skin men-dark skin/symbolism = egg = symbol of regeneration/stylized trees & figures Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus(?), pg 249-252 Early Empire Garden Scene, pg 249-252 Early Empire PAINTING ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 11 CRITERIA: Artist (If known) Painting from the House of M. Lucretius Fronto, pg 256-259 Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location –Geographical Early Empire Still Life with Peaches, Not in book pg 279 Early Empire Period, Herculaneum, c. 50 C.E., Late Empire, c. 200 CE , Period following a time of civil war, Vespasian government- restored imperial finances & stabilized empires frontiers Civil conflict followed Commodus’ death / Septimius Severus becomes ruler – African-born / general/ Adopted himself to Marcus Aurelius /Two sons Caracalla & Geta/Caracalla succeeded his father as emperor – Ruthless Emperor/ had his brother murdered & ordered the death of his wife/felled by assassin’s dagger in the 6th year of his rule/assassinations become the fate of many Roman emperors during the 3rd century CE ==> period of social, political, & economic upheaval was accompanied by the emergence of a new aesthetic / by the 3rd century burial of the dead had become widespread – replacing cremation painted wood Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, & Their Children Wall painting, fresco Materials / Construction / Techniques / Terms Narrative Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Pictorial SpaceComposition / Organization-Principles & Elements of Design 14” x 13 ½” – small detail of larger mural Wall painting found in homes – many subjects: landscapes, city views, portraits, still lifes Fourth Style- intricate, experiments in optical illusion Marks point of furthest advancement by ancients in the technique of representation Family portrait Still life painting / decorate walls Illusionistic effects, contour shadows with highlights, casual relationship of objects no since of motion-frontality & floating figures =-figures have no connection to the ground Color / Value / Space – positive, negative / / figureground / depth / color / movement / line – shape / balance / unity / view point / proportion- size/scale Movement / Gesture / Balance Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural -anatomical correctness / facial expression Non-objective – elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria Goal to paint light, to give the illusion of objects in a cupboard, approximate light & shade, artist understands the look of things is the function of light ruthless character was captured in his portraits-suggested texture of hairexample of the introspection of portraits-brow is knotted-abruptly turns head over left shoulder – may suspect danger/ / in art the non-classical style takes root – some characteristic from lower class art- PAINTING ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Page 12 CRITERIA: Artist (If known) Battle of Centaurs & Wild Beasts, pg 272 Artistic Time Period / Date / Orig. Location Context: Cultural Belief System (religion) / Historical – Social-PoliticalEconomic PatronArchitect (relationship) Location –Geographical Early Empire Relationship to site = geography, climate, etc. Medium / Technique: Materials / Construction / Techniques / Terms Narrative Function / Purpose: Symbolism / Iconography Patron / Audience Formalism (visual): Pictorial SpaceComposition / Organization-Principles & Elements of Design Color / Value / Space – positive, negative / / figureground / depth / color / movement / line – shape / balance / unity / view point / proportion- size/scale Movement / Gesture / Balance Expressive Content: Commonalities / Originality ofFigural -anatomical correctness / facial expression Non-objective – elements -Stylistic Characteristics / Influences -Manner of expression -Dominant forms, motifs, symbols -Narrative -Artistic training -Key Concepts Other relevant structures and/or criteria The Unswept Floor, Pg 273 Early Empire